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I
HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY
FROM THE UBRARY OF GEORGE EDWARD RICHARDS
A.B. 1867, M.D. 1883
THE GIFT OF
ANNA M. RICHARDS 1919
STUDIES
GENERAL HISTORY.
BY
MARY D. SHELDON,
rOKMBRLT PBOrBSBOR OF HISTORY IN WKLLKSLKT COLUEQE, AKD
TBACUER or RI8TOBT IV OSWEOO MOBMAL
SCHOOL, N.Y.
Stuiient'g lEWtion*
' Human affairs are neither to be laughed at nor wept over, hut to be understood**
BOSTON:
D. C. HEATH & COMPANY.
1891.
K oT.^t , O HARVARD COLLE^P ' IBRARY
THE 6IF1 ^^
MRS. 6E0RQE E. fflCHAROS
NOV. 1, 1919.
Copyright, Sbpt. 80, 188Su Bt MARY SHELDON BARNBS.
Typography by Frbbbwork by
J. S. Cubbing fc Co., Bbrwick fc Smith,
Boston. Boston.
TO
MY PUPILS AT WELLE SLEY COLLEGE AND AT OSWEGO,
TO WHOSE WARM ENCOURAGEMENT AND SYM- PATHY THIS BOOK IS LARGELY DUE, IT IS MOST LOVINGLY DEDICATED.
MARY D. SHELDON.
THE MAKING OP HISTORY.
To THE Student: —
How, then, is history made? If a man wanted to write the history of England, and no one before had eyer attempted it, so that no books existed from which he could read it, how would he go to work to find it ont? He would go to the *'*' origi- nal sources," as people say ; that is, he would go to London, to Oxford and Cambridge, and hunt through offices, libraries, and museums for all the old records, despatches, and letters, for reports of parliamentary debates, for the manuscripts of the old chroniclers, for copies of treaties and laws ; and from all these things he could find what had been the goyernment of England, what powers she had, from time to time, giyen to her king, her parliament, and the general mass of her people ; what classes of societ}' were recognized. by law, and how each class was regarded by the government and by other classes. He would discover what affairs of national importance had hap- pened, what had been the wars of England, and what she had deemed worth fighting for; what nations she had been con- nected with, and in what relations. And as he went along, he would note down all these things as material for his history.
Further than this, he would travel England over from end to end, and see what sorts of buildings these English had left behind them at different times ; he would examine all the old cathedrals, castles, and town walls, study the tombs in churches and graveyards, look out for all the old bits of painting or
VI THE MAKING OF HISTORY.
sculpture still remaining, and thus discover what had been the state of material civilization at this or that time, and what prog- ress had been made as centuries passed. These old structures would tell him what the English knew of building and engineer- ing, of working in stone and wood and metal, how much wealth they had and how they spent it ; these old bits of architecture, painting, and sculpture would tell him what they admired and loved as beautiful.
Not even this would finish his work ; it would be his business to read the English poetry and the English stories, the sermons of famous preachers and the speeches of great orators, for ^' out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." In this way he would best learn the English character and temper ; he would know what they liked and disliked, how they thought and felt about all that went on around them.
Meanwhile, throughout his studies of chronicles, of laws, of buildings and writings, he would note what men were oftenest mentioned and most highly honored, and thus discover the ideal of the English folk, that is, — what sort of men they tried to be themselves and wanted their children to become.
After all these inquiries and labors, our historian would at last be ready to sit down peacefully and write a history of Eng- land ; that is, he would embody in a continuous narrative all that he knew of the growth, development, and character of the English people; if his judgment were perfect, if he were a man without prejudice and with a perfect sense of the relative value of facts, if he knew how to tell what he knew so that all men could read and understand, and if, at last, he lived to complete his work, no one would care to write a second serious history of England. Such a work would be unnecessary; it would be easier far for a man to read this history, even if it
TEtE MAKING OF HISTORY. vii
were rather dry, than to go searching through yellow, dusty, and badly written manuscripts, through the heavy statute-books, and through volumes of half-forgotten literature, to say nothing of traveling over £ngland, exploring all the old remains and monuments. But since men's judgments widely vary, and since the observation of any single mind is imperfect, the work must be done again and again, and that, too, from the original sources, by different men with all their different points of view and different bents of genius. By reading and comparing these various histories, which would still be easier far than to make one for one's self, we should get a just idea of the history of England.
We Americaus are situated something like the man who has a history to write from original sources. We are called upon every day to judge of laws, of men, of events, of poems and stories, to decide between them, to see what they mean and where they are leading us ; and since we are citizens of a republic, we must not only see what they mean and where they are leading us, but decide whether these laws shall become the laws of the land, whether these poems and stories shall become popular among us and so come to mark our character, whether we shall make this man or that great and powerful among us. In short, we Americans are all making history — an American history, of a sort that no man has ever made before us, and which lies entirely in our own hands to shape according to our best judgment of all that goes on about us from year to year.
Now this book is not a histoiy, but a collection of historical materials ; it contains just the sort of things that historians must deal with when the}* want to describe or judge any period of history, and just the kind of things, moreover, which we Americans must constantly attend to and think about. In
VIU THE MAKING OF HISTORY.
Greek history, it gives bare chronicles of deeds, pictares of buildings and statues, extracts from speeches, laws, poems ; from these materials you must form 3*our own judgment of the Greeks, discover their style of thinking, acting, living, feeling; you must, in short, imagine that yon yourself are to write a Greek history, or that you are a Greek citizen, called upon to judge of the life about you. To help you in 'this, I have insei*ted in the midst of the material such questions and problems as the historian or citizen must always be asking himself, or rather must always be putting to the laws, events, poetry, and ruins which he studies, whether they belong to times and peoples far away or near at hand. In this way, you can learn how to judge and interpret what you see before you in your own country, and help to make of America that which she may become, — the strongest, noblest, finest nation in all the world.
Hoping that you will take kindly to this new way of studying history, I am
Very cordially and sincerely your friend,
MARY D. SHELDON.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PA6S.
pRSFACB y-viii
Civilized World beforb 776 b.c 3-29
Introductory 3
A. Study on Egypt 4-16
Historical sources and authorities 4
Organization 4-5
Leading events, works, and names . . . . . 6-6
Memphite period 5
Theban period 6
List of objects found in tombs . . . . 7
niustrative extracts from Egyptian literature . . 9-16
B, Study on Tigro-Euphrates Valley .... 16-23
Historical sources and authorities 16
Periods of history 16
Leading events, works, and names 16-18
Illustrative extracts from Assyrian and Babylonian
remains 18-22
C Study on Phcenicia 23-25
Historical authorities 23
Leading events, works, and names 23-24
Illustrative extracts 24-25
/>. Study on the Jkws 25-29
Historical sources and authorities 25
Periods of history 25
Leading events, names, and works .... 26
Illustrative extracts from Bible 27-29
Hellas, 1000 (?)-338 b.c 32-118
Introductory 32-33
A. Study on Heroic Age 33-47
Historical sources and authorities 33
Famous events, men, and works of Heroic Age . . 33-36
List of Greek gods, with attributes .... 36
Illustrative extracts from Homer 37-47
X STUDIES IN GBNEBAL HISTORY.
PAoa.
B. Study on Historic Grsege, 776-500 .... 47-72
Historical sources and authorities .... 47
I. General Hellenic development .... 48-56
Organization of people . • • . • 48
Leading events 49-50
Famous names and works 51-53
Illustrative extracts from original sources . . 53-56
II. Constitution and laws of Sparta .... 56-60
Spartan constitution 57
Institutions of Lycurgus, with illustrative ex- tracts and stories 58-60
m. Development of Athenian constitution . • . 61-72
Athens before Solon 61-63
Constitution 63
Legislation of Solon 63-65
Constitution ..*.... 64
Tyranny of Pisistratids 65-69
Legislation of Cleisthenes 69-71
Constitution 70-71
C. Study on Persian Wars 72-87
Original authorities 72
L First Persian War (abridged from Herodotus) . 73-76
II. Interval of Preparation (abridged from Hero-
dotus) 76-80
III. Second Persian War (abridged from Herodotus), 80-87 Z>. Study on the Athenian Leadership or the Age
OF Pericles 87-113
Historical sources and authorities .... 87
Summary of leading events 89-^6
List of famous names and works .... 96-101
Illustrative extracts and stories from original sources, 102-112 E.F. Spartan, Theban, and Macedonian Leaderships,
431-338 B.C. . 113-117
Historical sources and authorities .... 113
Summary of leading events 113-117
Hellenistic or Alexandrian Conquests and King- doms 119-127
Historical sources and authorities .... 119
Summary of leading events . . . . . 119-121
List of famous names and works • • • . 122-126
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI
Ron 120-285
Introductory 120-130
A.B. I. Study of Regal Rome and PRiE-PuNic Re- public 130-151
Organization and constitutions 130-136
niustratiye extract from Livy 136-137
Summary of leading events 137-140
Notable works and innovations of period . . . 140-143
List of religious feasts 143-144
Remains of Twelve Tables 145-146
Illustrative stories from Livy 147-151
B. 11. Study on Republican Rome, Punic Period . 152-169
Authorities 152
Note on Carthage 152
Summary of events, 265-201 b.c 153-155
Summary of events, 201-146 b.c 155-158
Extracts from Livy illustrative of Second Punic War, 158-162
List of famous men, deeds, and works . • . 162-163 Incidents, extracts, and facts illustrative of later Punic
period 164-169
B. III. Study on Republican Rome, Pobt-Punio
Period 170-189
Authorities 170
Summaries of events 170-175
List of famous men, works, and deeds . . . 175-176
Illustrative extracts from original sources . . . 177-189
C. I. Study on Pagan Empire, Augustus to Diocle-
tian 192-221
Authorities 192
Imperial organization according to Augustus . . 193-195
List of emperors, events, and works .... 196-205
List of famous imperial works and names . . 206-211
Extracts from original sources iUustrative of period . 212-221
The Teutonic Barbarians before 476 a.d. . . . 222-227
Authorities 222
Teutonic land-tenure 222
Extracts from << Gerinania " of Tacitus . . . 222-225
Extracts from Teutonic sources 226
C. II. Christian Empire, Constantine to Charlemagne, 228-285
Authorities . 228
xu
STUDIES IN OBNERAL HISTORY.
PACK.
A, Christian Empire under Roman Control . . 229-250
Imperial organization 229-231
Summary of leading events 281-235
List of famous names 236-240
Significant laws and customs 242-244
Illustrative extracts from contemporary sources . 244-250
B, and C, The West under Barbarian Control; Em-
fire OF Charlemaone 250-286
Summary of events 250-255
List of famous names and works .... 258-264
Significant laws and customs 267-270
Extracts from contemporary sources illustrative of
Christian empire . 270-275
Extracts illustrative of first century of Islam . . 276-280 Extracts illustrative of Islam in eighth and ninth
centuries 281-285
European History, 814-1880 286-539
Introductory 286
A, Early MEoiiEVAL Period; Charlemagne to the
Crusades, 814-1095 286-318
Historical sources and authorities .... 286
Organizations of period (feudal) .... 287-291
Summary of leading events 293-299
Lists of great names and works of period . . . 300-309 Extracts and stories illustrative of European life of
the period 310-314
Facts and stories illustrative of Islam . • . 315-318
B. Study on Crusading Period, 1095-1215 . . . 318-335
Historical authorities and sources .... 318
Summary of leading events 319-324
List of famous names and works of twelfth century . 325-329
Extract and stories illustrative of period . . . 329-335
C Study on Later Medieval Period . . 336-395
Historical authorities and sources .... 336
Organizations of period ; state, church, guild, town . 336-342
Summary of leading events 343-353
List of famous names, works, foundations, enterprises,
etc., of the period . . . . . . 353-870
Extracts and notes illustrative of law, custom, and
organization of period 378-395
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XUl
D. Renaissance and Reform ation Era, 1492-1648
(1649 in England) 396-438
Introductory 396
Historical source and authorities .... 396-397 Events and movements of period .... 398-410 List of famous works, structures, foundations, inven- tions, discoveries, etc., of period . . 410-420 Ck>ntemporary extracts iUustrative of life and thought
of the time 421-438
E, Modern Europe 438-538
I. The "Old Regime,*' 1648-1789; Peace of West-
phalia TO French Revolution . . 438-474
Aa, In Europe in general 438-459
Historical sources and authorities . . . 438-439
Summary of leading events .... 439-451 Famous works, foundations, enterprises, etc., of
period 451-458
Ab. Special study of " Old Regime '' in France . . 459-474
Historical sources and authorities . . . 459
Organization of France 460-461
Extracts Ulustrative of organization . . . 462-465
Attempted reforms 465-466
Extracts from contemporary sources illustrative
of life of period 466-469
Extracts illustrative of thought and feeling . 470-474
II. French Revolution and Wars of Napoleon . 474-491
Historical sources and authorities .... 474
Summaiy of leading events 475-484
Special study of the Pinissian leadership and the
Prussian revolution 486-491
III. The Nineteenth Century 491-538
Historical sources and authorities .... 491 Constitutions of modem states; England, France,
Germany 492-500
General summary of events 501-514
Special study on development of the German Empire, 514-525
Special study on development of Italy . . . 525-533
jSpecial study on socialism . • . • • 534-539
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION&
1. Pyramids of Ghizeh (gee'-za) 8
2. Court of Temple of fche Sun at Karnak 9
3. Colossus of Barneses II 11
4. The Sun-god Ra (ra) 13
5. Winged figure from a gate at Nimroud 19
6. Lion-gate at Mycenae (ml-see'-nee) 34
7. Parthenon 88
8. Sculpture from Parthenon frieze .... .89 0. Mosaic floor pattern from Olympia 95
10. Zeus of Phidias 101
11. Venus of MeMos 103
12. Etruscan wall at Volterra • 141
13. Roman wall of the kings 142
14. Part of Claudian aqueduct 198
15. Colisr-ura 199
16. Trajan and the lictors 201
17. Mosaic from baths of Caracalla 202
18. Pantheon of Agrippa 207
19. Relief from Christian sarcophagus of fourth century . . 241
20. Church of St. Sophia 265
21. LfCgend of St. Martin of Tours (toor) ; tapestry . . . 272
22. Mosaic of tenth century ; temporal and spiritual powers . 275
23. Interior of mosque at Cordova 277
24. Feudal interior ; serfs receiving orders from their lord . . 292
25. St. Mark's, Venice 306
26. Detail of Ducal palace, Venice 307
27. Fa9ade of Ducal palace 308
28. Cathedral of Amiens, France 371
29. Interior of Cologne cathedral 372
30. Portal of Notre Dame (n5treh-dahra') of Paris . . . 373
31. Monastery court at Pavia ........ 374
32. Castle of Pierrefonds (pe'-air-fond) near Paris . . . 375
XVI
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
33. Castle of St. Ulric, on the Rhine .
34. Cloth hall at Ypres (ee'-p'r) ....
35. Renaissance frieze-pattern from Venetian church
36. Fountains hall, Yorkshire . .
37. Court of Borghese (borga'-zeh) palace, Rome
38. The Escorial
39. St. Peter's
40. Bird's-eye view of Versailles (ver-salz')
376 377 398 413 415 416 417 457
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
21. 22. 23.
LIST OF MAPS.
Mediterranean lands before 776 b.c.
Greece, with shoi*es and islands of the ^gean
Greece and the Greek colonies {Freeman)
Attica
Persian, afterward Macedonian empire
ThermopylfiB
Italy
Mediterranean lands, 218 B.C.
Mediterranean lands, 146 B.C.
Roman empire under Trajan
Europe in the time of Theodoric (Freeman)
Europe in the time of Charlemagne (Freeman)
England about 600 a.d
Europe in the twelfth century (crusading era)
Western Europe in fourteenth century (1360) (Freeman)
Western Europe in time of Charles V. (Freeman)
Western Europe in 1648, Treaty of Westphalia .
Empire of Napoleon ; Europe in 1810 (Freeman) .
Europe in 1815, Peace of Vienna (Freeman)
Turkish dominion in Europe before and after Treaty
Berlin
Europe at the present day . The World at the present day Italy in 1815
2
30-31
44-45
66
74
81
128
152
157
190-191
252-253
256-257
. 299
316-317
. 347
. 397
. 402
. 482
. 485
of
. 505
516-517
520-521
. 524
Prof. P. V. N. Myers, who was so fortunate as to obtain the right to use Mr. Freeman's most admirable maps in the preparation of his "Outlines of Mediaeval and Modem History," has been so kind as to share with me the benefits of that permission. m. b. b.
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOET.
MAP OF LANDS 07 MEDITERRANBAN BBFORB 776 RQ
PAOSa
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
THE CIVILIZED WORLD BEFORE 776 B.C.
A« Egypt m
B. The Tigro~£uphrai98 Vaffey.
C. ^hmnkia.
D. Judma.
** I met a traveller from an antique land Who said : Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand. Half sunk, a shattered visage lies. . . .
And en the pedestal, these words appear:
Mj name is O^ymandias, king of kings ;
Look on mj works, ye mighty, and despair!
Nothing heside remains. Bomid the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare,
The lone and level sands stretch faraway." — Shellet.
Note on Sffap. — The yaUeys of the Nile, of the Tigris, and Eu* phrates were famous for their heavy yield of wheat. Their soil was fertile, level, and watered and fertilized by the overflow or the irriga- tion from their respective rivers. The cities of Lilybsemn, Fanormns, and Carthage were founded by Phoenicians, who also had in Spain two famous colonies; namely, Gades (Cadiz) and Tartessus (Tarshish), both of which were on the coast, near Gibraltar.
Questions on Sffap and Note. — How was Egypt naturally pro- tected from invasion? How could she feed a large population? How did these two facts help develop an early civilization ? What would be the chief natural occupation and support of her people ? Answer the same questions in regard to Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea.
4 STUDIES IN 6ENBBAL HISTORY.
How were Phoenicia tod Judaea protected? Which of the civilized people of that time were sailors ? What great cities now stand at or near the same foundations as those given on the map? In what latitude did civilization arise? What reason for this ? What reasons can you give why Southern Europe was civilized before Northern ? What part of it would first become civilized, and why? How is Southern Europe protected from invasion?
A. STUDY OH EGYPT.
Chief contemporary sources of its history: the Pyramids, the temples of Karnak, and other remains near or at the site of Thebes ; the contents and inscriptions of the tombs near Memphis, Thebes, and elsewhere.
Other original sources: Old Testament, Herodotus, Manetho, Records of the Past (Eng. trans, of inscriptions).
Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Wilkin- son, Bunsen, Duncker, Brugsch, Rawlinson, Lenormant, Chevallier, Sayce, Birch, Mariette.
1. Classes of People in EgypU
Xinsi who divides the land, makes the laws, decides on war or peace, appoints and removes judges, generals, and all officers in general; he is believed to be son of the chief deity while living, and is himself worshipped as a deity when dead ; he leads the army in war, is one of the chief priests of the land, directs the making and building of roads, canals, cities, temples, palaces.
Priests, who hold government offices, have entire charge of religion and education, hold one-third of the land of ^gyP^ P*y ^o taxes. The chief high priest is second to the king.
"Warriors or Nobles, who hold government offices, hold about a third of the land, pay no taxes, aid the king in war.
STUDY ON EGYPT. 5
Country ZiaborexB, who work the land of the priests and nobles, are sold with it, pay heavy taxes, and are forced to work on canals, roads, temples and palaces, when ordered by the king.
Tradesmen and Artisans of the towns.
2. Leading Periods of Egyptian Migtory^ tvith Chief EventSf Works^ and Nanmes of Each Period,
Old and Middle Empires of Bgypt. — Cheops (Khufu), king of Memphis, builds the Great Pyramid of Ghizeh, near Memphis, for his tomb
TO
9000 (T)
(see picture, p. 8). Other kings build the second and third pyramids, the sphinx^^ and the temple of the sphinx. From this time dates the " Book of the Dead," a book of directions for the soul after death, written by the priests ; and a book on morals and manners, by the Memphite prince, Ptah-hotep.
In the latter part of this time the famous Lake Mceris is constructed, — an enormous artificial reservoir for re- taining and evenly distributing through the country, by means of irrigating canals, the overflow of the Nile. With this is connected the necessary canal, and a protecting dyke twenty-seven miles long ; the necessary sluices and flood-gates, and a Nilometer for measuring the height of the river. The so-called " Labyrinth," in some way con- nected with religion, is also built. All these works are begun and carried through by kings ruling at Thebes.
1 The (1) placed after a date or a statement implies that the date or the statement is disputed or approximate.
' The sphinx is a colossal crouching figure, half beast, half man, near the Great Pyramid. It is cut from the solid rock, and nearly 200 ft. in length. The head alone measures about 30 ft. from the top of the fore- head to the bottom of the clun. It is a sjrmbol of the sun-god.
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
5M)00(?)
TO
1600 (?)
The Hyksos, or shepherd kings, foreigners firom Syria or Arabia, hold the country. Under them the Jews (Jacob and his sons) probably enter Egypt.
1600 (T)
TO
1850 (T)
New ISmpiTe, centering at Thebes. — The The- ban kings expel the shepherds, and rule the whole of Egypt. Under their eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, conquests are made in Phoenicia, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Nubia. The horse and chariot are brought into Egypt from Asia. In the latter part of the period, the Exodus of the Jews takes place. Thothmes III. (eighteenth dynasty) builds magnificent temples at Mem- phis, Thebes, and at Karnak and Luxor, near Thebes, and is a famous conqueror. About 1400, the colossi of Mem- non are made, sitting monolithic statues of the reigning king, more than sixty feet high. The father of Rameses II. causes old gold mines to be reopened and worked, and builds the Q-reat Hall of the temple at Karnak. This " Hall of Columns " is composed of 184 stone pillars, and covers a larger area than Cologne Cathedral. The col- umns at Karnak, many of them, are 62 ft. high and 88 ft. around ; many others are 46 ft. high and 27 or 28 ft. in cir- cumference. One of these columns fell against another, but neither injured nor shook it ; both yet remain, one bearing the other. The ceiling of the temple was com- posed of single stones, extending from column to column. Rameses II., wlio was known as Sesostris to the Greeks, opens a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, maintains a fleet, builds cities and temples, erects obelisks and statues to himself and the gods, establishes a royal library under the care of the priests, in which are the works of his- torians, moralists, philosophers, poets, and novelists.
Decline of Egyptian power; final conquest of Egypt by the Persians, in 527.
isftocr)
TO
587.
STUDY OK EGYPT. 7
8. List of Objects found within or represented upon Egyptian Tombs.
a. From all PeriodB. — Mummies^ or the bodies of the dead preserved in natron, bitumen, spices, oils, gums and aromatics, and wrapped about with linen bandages of all degrees of fineness, the whole enclosed in a wooden coffin, shaped like the body, painted and ornamented according to the means of its owner ; sarcophagi^ or stone cases of granite, alsibaster, or other fine stone, variously engraved and carved, each containing within it mummy and mummy- case ; papyri^ or manuscripts written on paper made from the papyrus reed, which grew in ancient Egypt ; wooden plows and hoes ; boats with oars, and with plain or em- broidered sails ; oxen, asses, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry ; trained grape-vines; statuettes and amulets of alabaster, of glazed and unglazed pottery, and opaque glass ; jewelry of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones.
I, From Theban Period. — VJ'ar-horses and chariots ; all sorts of weapons, spears, javelins, arrows, clubs, frequently of brouze; saws, mallets, chisels, frequently of bronze; looms, embroidered linen robes; many sorts of musical instruments, leather sandals, chairs, stools, flower-stands, couches, perfumery bottles.
STUDY ON I, 2, AND 3.
Who held the central political and military power in ancient Egypt? Prove it from 1 and 2. What belief confirmed this power? What classes were aristocrats ? Of what use was each class ? What class supported the rest? What class was oppressed, and how? What name do you give to such a form of government ? Of society ? What classes would support this form of government and society? What seem to have been the chief desires of the Memphite kings? Of the Theban ? On whom did Egypt depend for her success in war and commerce, and her glory in civilization ? What does the absence of
8
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
monuments and records under the Ilyksos kings seem to indicate about them? Make a list of the arts known among the Egyptians; of the occupations; of the different sorts of knowledge. Of these,
THB F7SAMID6 OF OHIZIH.
which specially belonged to the Theban period ? Wliat tell us about tliese things ? What position gave a man the chance for greatness, and how could he achieve it ?
STUDY ON EGYPT.
4. JPietures and :ExtractB lUtMtriUive of Egyptian CivUiza;tian.
Note on PyramidB. — Of the sixty or seventy pyramids in Egypt, the most famous is the Pyramid-group of Ghizeh ; and of this group, the Great Pyramid is the most wonderful. Its original height, ap- proaching 500 ft., was greater than that of any other structure, and it covers an area of more than thirteen acres. Many of the basement stones are thirty feet long, and nearly five feet high, and, even to the top of the pyramid, the mass of single stones is great. These stones
OOURT or TlMPLl Of THB SUN AT KABICAK. BUILT BY RAMBSBS m.
are united by a cement harder than themselves, and by joints as thin as a sheet of paper. Within the pyramid are three sepulchral chambers, to which access is had by long galleries. The chief of these is the King's Chamber, where the sarcophagus of the builder of the pyramid was found. This room is made wholly of finely polished granite, whose great blocks were brought down the Nile from quarries more than 500 miles away. In order to lighten the weight of masonry upon its roof, five low chambers are consti-ucted above it ; to ventilate it,
10 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
two small passages lead from it to the outside air, through the solid masses of the pyramid. The cutting and polishing of its stones is equal to any work that can be produced to-day, with the best perfected tools. Much of its stone was brought from the Arabian quarries, and the causeway on which it was brought from the Kile to the pyramids is still to be traced for a good distance.
EXTRACTS.
From the »' Book of the Dead."
When the deceased was brought before Osiris, the judge of the dead, he was questioned as to his whole past life. In i*eply he should be able to answer : " I have not blasphemed ; I have not deceived ; I have not stolen ; I have not slain any one treacherously ; I have not been cruel to any one ; I have not caused disturbance; I have not been idle; I have not been drunken; I have not issued unjust orders; I have not been indiscreetly curious ; I have not multiplied words in speaking ; I have struck no one ; I have caused fear to no one ; I have not eaten my heart through envy ; 1 have not reviled the face of the king, nor the face of my father. ... I have not ill-used my slaves ; I have not killed sacred beasts ; I have not defiled the river. ... I have made it my delight to do what men com- mand, and the gods approve. I have offered to the deities all the sacrifices that were their due ; I have given bread to the hungry and drink to him that was athirst ; I have clothed the naked with garments. ..." Could the deceased thus justify himself, he was allowed to pass on his way toward Elysium.
From a Prayer to the Chief God. (Memphite period.)
'^Hail to thee. Lord of truth! ... at whose command the gods were made ; . . . the maker of men ; that supportest their works, that givest them life ; . . . that listenest to the poor who is in distress ; that art gentle of heart when a man crieth unto thee ; thou who deliverest the fearful man from the violent ; who judgest the poor and oppressed ; Lord of wisdom ... at whose pleasure the Nile overflows her banks ; Lord of mercy, most loving, at whose coming men live ; . . . cause of pleasure
STUDY ON EGYPT.
11
TBI ODLOSBDB or
n.
Tbii coloMOf to nearly WTenty feet In height; it is one of four, cut from the toNd roek» that gnanl the entranoe to the rocJi-iMWB temple of IpaambouU la Nabia.
12 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
and light, at whose goodness the gods rejoice, their hearts reviving when they see Thee."
From the Precepts of Prince Ptah-hotep.
'^ The obedience of a docile son is a blessing. . . . The son who accepts the words of his father will grow old on account of it. For obedience is of God, disobedience is hateful to God. . . . Fulfil the word of thy master. . . . The obedient will be happy through his obedience ; he will attain old age, he will acquire favor. I have mj'self in this way become one of the ancients of the eailh; I have passed one hundred and ten years of life by the gift of the King . . . fulfilling my duty to the King in the place of his favor.'*
From a Hymn to the Nile^ of the Time of Rameses IL Hail to thee, O Nile ! Thou showest thyself in this land. Coming in peace, giving life to Egypt :
Overflowing the gardens created by Ra ; * Giving life to all animals ; Watering the land without ceasing :
Lover of food, bestower of corn, Giving light to ever}' home ... I
Thou shinest in the city of the King ;
Then the house-holders are satiated with good things ;
The poor man laughs at the lotus. ^
All things are perfectly ordered, —
Every kind of herb for thy children.
If food should fail.
All enjoyment is cast on the ground.
The land falls in weariness.
^ Ra, the chief sun-god.
^ Which he ate when he could get nothing else.
STUDY ON EGYPT.
13
Shine forth, shine forth, O Nile ! shine forth ! Giving life to men by his oxen : Giving life to his oxen by the pastures I Shine forth in glory, O Nile.
From a Prayer to the Sun. (Theban period.) .
^^ Thou Disk of the sun, thou living god, there is none othei beside thee I thou givest health to the eyes. . . . Creator of all beings. Thou goest up in the eastern horizon of the heaven, to dispense life to all which thou hast created, — man . . . beasts, birds, and creeping things of the earth . . . and they go to sleep when thou settest."
From a Prayer of Barneses^ when hard
pressed in Battle,
" I call on thee, my father Ammon^ ; I am amid multitudes unknown, na- tions gathered against me: I am alone, no other with me ; my foot and horse have left me. I called aloud to them, none of them heard. I find Ammon worth more than millions of soldiers, thousands of cavalry, . . . were they gathered all in one. No works of many men avail, Ammon against them. . . . My ovy rang unto Hermonthis ; Ra heard when I called, he put his hand to me ; I was glad ; he called to me : ^ Rameses, I am with thee, I thy father Ra ; my hand is with thee. I am worth to thee myriads joined in one ; I am sovran lord of victory, loving valor ; if I find courage, my heart over- flows with joy; all my doing is fulfilled.'" "Then," adds Rameses, " not one of them joined his hand to fight, their heart
■OYFTIAH RBPRBSIRTATION Gf TBI SnV-OOD RA.
God of heaven, afterward united with Ra, the sun-god.
14 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
shrank within them ; . . . I slew them ; . . . none escaped me ; . . . Ammon brings very low them that know not God."
From an Inscription concerning Rameses,
'' Prince, Sovran Lord . . . who can soothe thee in the day of thy wrath ? . . . Dread of his might is in every heart, he protects his Army, all nations come to the great name, falling down and adoring his noble countenance."
The following is from an inscription regarding another The- ban king : —
" Then came the prince Pefaabast, with tributes to the reigning Pharaoh of gold, silver, and all precious stones, with steeds the choicest of his stud. He threw himself prostrate before the king and said, ' Hail to thee, Horus, saci-ed majesty ! . . . Hades has seized me. I am immersed in darkness ! Give me light, I pray thee. I have not found a friend in the evil time standing by me in the da}* of battle, save thee only, O King. Do thou lift the darkness from me. I am thy slave, together with all my subjects, attached to thy royal apartments : thou glorious image of the sun, ruling over the indestructible con- stellations ! While he exists thou existest, as he is indestructi- ble thou art indestructible, O King of all Egypt, living for evermore.' "
And again : ^' Corn is brought as an offering to thee ; it is in its season : do not destroy the tree together with its fruit. All hail to thee ! Thy terror is in ray body ; thy fright is in my teeth ! I sit not in the house of feasting ; the harp is not brought to me ; lo, I eat the bread of hunger and drink in thirst. For since the day thou heardest my name terror is in my bones, my head is untrimmed, my garments are squalid:"
From a Writer of the Time of Ramesea II.
" Have you ever represented to yourself the state of the iiistic who tills the ground ? Before he has put the sickle to the crop, the locusts have blasted a part of it ; then come the rats and the birds. . . . Anon, the tax-gatherer arrives, his agents are
STUDY ON EGYPT. 15
armed with clubs ; he has negroes with him who carry whips of palm branches. They all cry ' Give us your grain ! ' and he has no eas}' way of avoiding their extortionate demands. Next, the wretch is caught, bound and sent off to work without wages at the canals ; his wife is taken and chained ; his children are stripped and plundered."
From a Writer of the Time of Thothmes III. — accompanying
the picture of a taskmaster armed with a stick, who thus
addresses the laborers : —
''The stick is in my hand. Be not idle."
" Here are to be seen the prisoners, which have been carried away as living captives in very great numbers ; they work at the building with active fingers ; their overseers are in sight ; these insist with vehemence (on the others) obeying the orders of the great skilled lord (head-architect) who prescribes to them the works ; . . . they are rewarded with wine and all kinds of good dishes ; they perform their service with a mind full of love for the king ; they build for Thothmes ... a Holy of Holies for the gods. May it be rewarded to him through a range of years."
STUDY ON 4.
What qualities did the Egyptians evidently admii*e in architecture and sculpture? (See text of 2, as well as pictures.) Make a list of all the arts and sciences that are indicated by the pictures. (See notes also.) What did the Egyptians believe in regard to the immortality of the soul? Of the body? What did they believe of the nature of deity? Of the number of deities? Of their relative rank ? Of the moral duties of man ? What moral duties stood highest in their re- gard? Any relation between this and their form of government? In theb religious life how was human equality regarded ?
What reasons had they for thinking the sun divine ? The Nile ? How could their gods be reached and pleased? Judging from the sphinx and the picture of the sun-god (p. 13), what peculiarity was there in the Egyptian representation of deity ? What proof have we that the Egyptians believed that the gods could and would interfere with and direct human affairs ?
16 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
What was true of liberty among the Egyptians? Of equality? Prove it from 1 and 4. What was the Egyptian ideal of manhood? What right had the Egyptians to be called civilized ? What superior right have we? What Egyptians were uncivilized?
B. STUDY OH THE TKJEO-EUPHRATES VALLEY.
Chief contemporary and original sources of history: The ruins of the palaces of Nineveh and Babylon ; cuneiform inscriptions on brick cylinders and tablets^; the Hebrew scriptures of the Old Testament; and the fragments of Berosus, Records of the Past (see page 4).
Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Rawlin- son, Smith, Layard, Birch, Lenorniant, Sayce, Duncker.
Periods of History (all dates B.C.)- Dynasties ruling at or near Babylon in chief power, 4000 (?)-
1250 (?). Assyrian dynasties ruling at or near Nineveh in chief power,
1250 (?)- 625 (?). Nineveh destroyed by Babylonians and Medes, 625 (?). Babylon chief power of the valley, 625 (?) -538. Babylon conquered by the Persians, 538.
1. Leading EventSf Works f and Katnes in the History of Bahylonia and Assyria*
Observations made at or near Babylon on stars, comets, planets, on the sun and moon; stars named, length and divisions of the year deter- mined, zodiac described and divided; calendar formed,
1 The brick cylinders and tablets were the Assyrian books ; the law, record, or story, to be preserved, was written in cuneiform (wedge-shaped) characters, on a clay surface, from which, when hard, a number of dupli* cate impressions might be made. Thousands of these clay records bar* been found, and are being deciphered.
4000 (T)
TO
1260 (T)
STUDY ON THE TIGRO-BUPH BATES VALLEY. 17
eclipses observed and piedicted. Canals built, and an embankment for the Tigris made ; a library founded, in which are many books (of clay) on astronomy and as- trology. About 1900, Nineveh founded by settlers from Babylonia,
Tiglath-Pileser I., Assyrian king, conquers territory in every direction, and rules from the Mediterranean to the Caspian; Sardanapalus
1»50(?)
TO
625 (?)
(Assur-natzir-pal), a great warrior, conquers most of Phoe- nicia ; builds a great palace near Nineveh. Shalmaneser II., a great warrior, builds himself a splendid palace near Nineveh. Tiglath-Pileser II. temporarily conquers Phoe- nicia, Palestine, Syria. Sargon conquers Samaria and Judaea, builds a new city with palaces and temples. Sen- nacherib, a great warrior, maintains a fleet, founds Tarsus, constructs canals and aqueducts, builds himself a grand palace at Nineveh. Esarhaddon, a great warrior, holds Phoenicia, Syria, and Judah in tribute ; conquers Egypt ; begins the walls of Babylon. Sardanapalus II. (Asshur- bani-pal) subdues Egypt and various neighboring territo- ries ; builds at Nineveh the most magnificent of Assyrian palaces, and establishes a royal library, in which are found treatises on grammar, dictionaries of native languages, laws, collections of hymns, lists of plants, minerals, and animals ; many books on arithmetic ; catalogues of obser- vations on the stars, planets, sun, and moon. Nineveh destroyed by Babylonians and Medes. | 625 (?) [ Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, conquers Jerusalem, Egypt, Syria, and Phoenicia ; builds a great pal- ace, and the famous *' hanging gardens " at Baby- lon ; surrounds his city by walls, reckoned as one
625 (?)
TO
538.
of the wonders of the world for their thickness, strength, and height. He completes the quays of the Euphrates, re-opens a royal canal, constructs a great lake as an arti-
18 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOIiY.
ficial reservoir for watering the plain, and establishes a harbor city for Babylon at the mouth of the Euphrates.
2. Extr<ict8 Illustrative of Assy rio- Babylonian History, taken from the Inscriptions of Various Monarchs.
From Tiglath'FUeser /., about 1120.
" Tiglath-Pileser, the powerful King ; supreme King of vari- ous tongues ; King of all Kings ; Lord of Lords ; the Supreme ; Monarch of Monarchs ; the illustrious Chief, who under the auspices of the Sun God, being armed with the sceptre and girt with the girdle of power over mankind, rules over all the people of Bcl.^ . . . With a host of kings I have fought . . . and have imposed on them the bond of servitude. There is not to me a second in war nor an equal in buttle. 1 have added territory to Assyria and peoples to her people. ... I conquered the whole counti'y of Comukba. I plundered their movables, their wealth, and their valuables. Their cities I burnt with fire, I destroyed them and ruined them. ... I took the entire country of Sugi. Twenty-five of their gods, their movables, their wealth, and their valuables I carried off. All of their cities I burnt with fire, I destroyed and overthrew. The men of their armies sub- mitted to my yoke. I had mercy on them. I imposed on them tribute and offerings. Among the subjects of Asshur,' my Lord, I reckoned them. ..."
From Esar-haddon.
" In a fortunate month, and a lucky day, I began to build great palaces for the residence of my Majesty upon that mound. Bulls and lions, carve<l in stone, which, with their majestic mien, deter wicked enemies from approaching, right and left I placed them at the gates.
^ Bel, or Baal, one of the chief Assyrian gods.
' Asuhor, or Assur, one of the oldest Assyrian gods.
STUDY ON THE TIG RO-EUPH RATES VALLEY.
19
*' Winged lionesses of bronze I placed within. Of fine cedar wood and ebony I made the ceilings of the apartments. The whole of that palace I embellished with veneered slabs of ivory and alabaster, and I embroidered its tapestries. With flat roofs, like a floor of lead, I covered the whole building, and with plates of pure silver and bright bronze I erected it within."
WDTOID fTOURI FROM A OATl AT NDiROnD. NIIAR NINIVBH.
From Asaur-natzir-paL (Sardanapalus.)
"To Ninip [an Assyrian god], most powerful hero, war- rior, . . . i>owerful lord, whose onset in battle has not been opposed, ... he who rolls along the mass of heaven and earth, opener of canals, . . . the god who in his divinity nourishes heaven and earth, . . . bestower of sceptres, ... a king in bat-
20 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
tie, mighty, . . . smiting the land of the enemy, . . . the deitj who changes not his purposes, the light of heaven and earth, a bold leader on the waters, destroyer of them that hate [him]] , a spoiler [and] Loixl of the disobedient, dividing enemies, whose name in the speech of the gods no god has ever disregarded, — ... to him, in the reverence of my heart for his mighty Lord- ship, I founded a temple, where I caused to be made an image of Ninip himself in mountain-stone and brilliant gold."
Prom an Inscription of Sargon^ upon a Palace.
"I built in the city palaces covered with skins, with wood- work of sandal, tamarisk, cedar, and cypress, palaces of incom- parable magnificence for the seat of my royalty. . . . There I wrote up the glory of the gods. ... I made a spiral staircase like that of the great temple in Syria. . . . Between the doors, I placed eight double lions of massive bronze. ... I placed over them architraves of gypsum stone of great dimensions. . . . My palaces contain gold, silver, vessels of these two metals, precious stones, iron, bronze, blue and purple stuffs, . . . amber, sealskins, pearls, sandal and ebony wood, horses from Egypt, oxen, mules, camels. These are the tributes I asked for the gods."
From Sennacherib.
'' In the first campaign I conquered . . . the King of Chaldea. ... I opened his treasure house, I seized gold, silver, his fur- niture, his robes, his wife, his men, his courtiers, his male and female slaves, his domestics of the palace, his soldiera ; I brought them out and sold them for slaves. . . . But Hezekiah, king of Judah, did not submit. There were forty-six walled towns, and nn infinite number of villages that I fought against, humbling their pride, and braving their anger. By means of fire, massacre, battles, and siege-operations, I took them ; I occupied them ; I brought out 200,150 persons, great and small, men and women, horses, asses, mules, camels, oxen, and
STUDY ON THE TIGROEUPH KATES VALLEY. 21
sheep without numher, and carried them ofif as booty. As for himself I shot him np in Jerusalem, the city of his power, like a bird in its cage. . . . Then the fear of my majesty terrified Hezekiah; ... He sent messengers to me . . . with thirty talents of gold and eight hundred talents of silver, metals, rubies, pearls, great carbuncles, seats covered with skins, thrones ornamented with leather, amber, sealskins, sandal wood, and ebony, the contents of his treasury, as well as his daughters, the women of his palace, his male and female slaves. ... By my care I caused the uprising of springs in more than forty places in the plain ; I divided them into irri- gating canals for the people of Nineveh, and gave them to be their own property. To obtain water to turn the flour-mills, I brought it in pipes ... to Nineveh, and skilfully constructed water-wheels. I brought down the perennial waters of the river Kutzuru from the distance of three miles and a half, into those reservoirs, and covered them well.
" That I might conquer my powerful enemies, I prayed to the gods my protectors, to Assur, the Moon, the Sun, Bel, Nebo, Nergal, Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbela. They heard my earnest prayers, and came to my assistance. From my heart I vowed a thank-offering for it."
Of Asaur-bani-pcU.
" Those men who uttered the curses of their mouth, against Assur my god, and against me, the prince his worshipper, had devised evil; — their tongues I pulled out, their overthrow I accomplished. The rest of the people I threw alive among the stone lions and bulls. Their cut-off limbs I caused to be eaten by dogs, bears, . . . birds of heaven, and fishes of the deep. By these things, ... I satisfied the hearts of the great gods my lords."
From Nebuchadnezzar^ 8 Description of a Temple built by him at Babylon.
" I employed for the woodwork of the chamber of oracles the largest trees I had caused to be transported from the summit of
22 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
Lebanon. I covered with pure gold the enormous beams of cypress, employed for the woodwork of the chamber of oracles ; the lower portion of the woodwork I incrusted with gold, silver, other metals, and gems. I had the vault of the mystic sanctu- ary incrusted with glass and gems, so as to represent the firma- ment with the stars. The wonder of Babylon, I rebuilt and restored it : it is this temple of the base of heaven and earth whose summit I raised of bricks, and covered it externally with a cornice of copper."
From a Prayer at the Death of a Righteous Man,
^' To the Sun, greatest of the gods, may he ascend ! and may the Sun, greatest of the gods, receive his soul into his holy hands ! "
FVom an Assyrian Ode.
" O Fire, great Lord, who art the most exalted in the world, O Fire, with thy bright flame in the dark house thou dost cause light. Of all things that can be named, Thou dost form the fabric ! Of bronze and of lead, Thou art the melter ! Of sil- ver and of gold, Thou art the refiner ! ... Of the wicked man in the night-time ; Thou dost repel the assault ! But the man who ser\'^es his god, Thou wilt give him light for his actions."
STUDY ON I AND 2.
What were the two centres of power in the Tigro-Euphrates valley ? What gave men power and greatness in tliis valley ? Make a list of the arts and sciences known to the Assyrians and Babylonians. Of indus- tries. What right had they to be called civilized ? How were they not civilized ? On whom were they dependent for all the civilization they had? With what or whom was the king identified? Who were thought to aid him, and for whom did he fight? Which deities were better, those of Assyria, or Egypt? Prove it. What was the am- bition of an Assyrian or Babylonian king? Which of these kings do you consider greatest, and why ?
What did the Assyrio-Babylonians believe about the number and nature of the deities? About the future existence of the soul? How were their gods reached, and how i)lease(l? What made fire seem
STUDY ON PHCENICIA. 23
diviue ? What proves that they believed iii tlie interference of the gods in the human affairs ?
What did the Assyrians seem to admire in art ? What was the purpose of such a winged, colossal figure as is represented on p. 19 ?
C. STUDY OIT PHCEHIOIA.
Chief contemporary authorities : Hebrew scriptures and a few scattered inscriptions ; other original authorities : notices of the Greek writers, and Josephus.
Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Ken- rick, Heeren, Rawlinson Lenormant, Duncker.
Periods of History.*
1500(?)-1100(?), — Sidonian power greatest.
1100(?) to about 850, — Tyrian power greatest.
850 onward, — Phoenicia for the most part subject to foreigners.
1. Leading Events , Works f and Natnes of the Fhcsnician
History^
About 10S6.
Hiram, king of Tyre, builds and restores splen- did temples ; constructs a new harbor, lines the old one with quays, and protects all by a strong dyke; sends an exploring expedition through the Red Sea to India (Ophir).
The Pho6nicians establish colonies in Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Greek Archipelago ; on the
BmwoBM 776.
coasts of Greece itself, in Sicily, Spain, and Northern Africa; the most famous are Paphos, in Cyprus, — Lily- baeum and Panormus, in Sicily, — Utica and Carthage, in Africa, — Tartessus and Gades (Cadiz), in Spain. They obtain British tin and Baltic amber, probably by
1 All dates B.C.
24 STUDIES IN GENERAL UISTOltY,
an overland trade, at the mouths of the Rhine and Po ; from the Red Sea they reach India, and bring thence its carved ivories, its wrought metals, and finely-woveu stuffs ; they cause the gold and silver mines of Greece to be opened and worked.
They adapt the Egyptian characters to the phonetic alphabet, which becomes the basis of the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and following European alphabets.
2« Extracts lUustrcUive of PhcetUcian CivUixatlon.
Description of Tyre.
"Thy borders are in the midst of the seas, thy builders have perfected thy beauty. They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees : . . . they have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee. Of . . . oaks . . . have they made thine oars ; the company of the Asshurites (Assyrians) , have made thy benches of ivory. . i . Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail ; blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was that which covered thee. The inhabitants of Zidon and Arvad were thy mariners : thy wise men, O Tyrus (Tyre), that were in thee, were thy pilots. . . . Tarehish (Tartessus) was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all kinds of riches ; with silver, iron, tin, and lead they traded in thy fairs. . . . Syria was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of the wares of thy making : they occu- pied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and coral, and agate. Judah, and the land of Israel, they were thy merchants : they traded in thy market wheat, . . . and honey, and oil, and balm. . . . Arabia, and all the princes of Kedar, they occupied with thee in lambs, and rams, and goats." — Ezekiel xxvii.
The prophet also names, among articles of merchandise, the " peraons of men," *' vessels of brass," horses, horsemen, mules, " precious horns of ivory and ebony," wine, white wool, iron, cassia, *' precious clothes for chariots."
STUDY ON THE JEWS. 25
From an Assyrian Inscription,
*^I attacked the city of Sidon, standing in the midst of the sea. ... I carried away all that I could of its treasures ; gold, silver, precious stones, amber, seal-skins, sandal-wood, and ebony, sta£Fs dyed purple and bine."
STUDY ON I AND 2.
Make a list of the occupations and industries of the Phoenicians. What occupation was their own as distinct from Assyrians, Babylo- nians, and Egyptians ? In order to carry on this occupation, what others must they have? Where would the Phoenicians find the best market for their goods, and why? What would they learn from their occu- pation that we learn from books ? What reason can you find in the physical geography of Phoenicia for its chief occupations ? Of what use were the Phoenicians to the world of their own time ? Of times since then? Make a list of the countries which must have been visited by them. Why should they receive amber and tin at the months of the Po and Rhone rather than at any other point along the coast? Plow did Phoenicia begin the civilization of Europe?
In GtoneraL — What right have the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Egyptians to be called civilized ? What facts among those given prove the highest civilization ? What sort of civilization is seen in these facts ?
D. STUDY ON THE JEWS.
Chief contemporary sources of its history: its own scriptures and the Egyptian and Assyrian records ; other original authority, Josephus.
Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Milman, Ewald, Stanley, Wellhausen, Duncker, Kuenen.
Periods op History.^
Exodus from Egypt, 1320(?).
Period of Judges, Conquest of Palestine, 1320(?)-1055(?).
» All dates B.C.
26 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKV.
Period of United Monarchy, Saul, David, Solomon, 1055(?)-9o3(?) Period of Divided Monarchy and Decline, 953(?)-586. The people taken captive and Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchad- nezzar, 586.
1. LecUling Events, Names, and Works, 1820 (?}-SS6.
About 1320.
Moses, a priest, " learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," leads the Jews out of Egypt, where they had been in bondage, into Palestine; gives the people a code of civil law in the name of one God, Jehovah; these laws and the early history of the world, and of the Jews, are embodied in the first five books of the Old Testament.
Joshua, the minister of Moses, leads the Jews to conquer a place for themselves in Palestine ;
About 1250.
the strongholds of the country are taken, and the Jews, settled by their twelve tribes, become the chief people of Palestine.
Constant war between the Jews, who believe in one God, and the other people of Palestine, who are polytheists and idolaters. The rulers of the
15860 (?)
TO 106R (?)
Jews are prophets, priests, or men believed to be chosen by God himself ; they are leaders in battle, and a continu- ous record of their deeds is preserved in the Old Testament. Saul is anointed the first king of the Jews by the prophet Samuel, who is his chief adviser until his death. Under his rule, Palesthie is more
1066 (?)
TO 963 (?)
thoroughly brought under the Jewish dominion.
David is secretly anointed Saul's successor by the proph- et Samuel, and on Saul's death is chosen by the people as king, being their strongest warrior and a very devout man. He makes Jerusalem tlie chief city of Palestine, he conquers and holds much neighboring territory, and gathers a great treasure for building a temple in honor of
953 (?)
TO
586.
STUDY ON THE JEWS, 27
Jehovah; dies before he begins it; chief advisers, the priests and prophets. He composes many psalms for use in sacred service. Solomon, his son, becomes king of Palestine; forms alliances with Egypt and Phoenicia; builds the great temple at Jerusalem, and a rich palace for himself, using in both great quantities of gold and silver, of precious woods, and fine carved work, mostly made by Tyrian workmen ; poet, scholar, and author of many Proverbs. A continuous historical record of this whole period is made by the Jewish priests, and preserved in the Old Testament.
A continuous record is kept by the priests during this last period, and a mass of religious poetry is written by Isaiah, Ezekiel, Jeremiah, and other prophets; otherwise, there are no notable works or deeds among the Jews before 586.
2. ExtrcLcts lUuatrative of Jewish Belief and Feeling.
From the Laws.
" And God spake all these words, saying, I am the Lord th}' God, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt. . . . Thou shalt have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image. . . . Honour thy father and th}' mother : that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. Thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour. Thou shalt not covet. . . . If thou buy an Hebrew servant, six years he shall serve : and in the seventh he shall go out free for nothing. . . . Thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, foot for foot. . . . He that sacrificeth unto any God, save unto the Lord only, he shall be utterly destroyed. Thou shalt neither vex a stranger, nor oppress him : for yQ were strangers in the land of Egypt. Ye shall not afflict any widow or fatherless child. If
28 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
thou afflict them in any wise, and they cry at all unto me, I will surely hear their cry. . . . Thou shalt not wrest the judgment of thy poor in his cause. Keep thee far from a false matter ; and the innocent and righteous slay thou not : for I will not justify the wicked."
From the Psalms.
" The Lord also will be a refuge for the oppressed, a refbge in times of trouble. . . • The Loid is king for ever and ever : the heathen are perished out of his land. Lord, thou hast heard the desire of the humble : thou wilt prepare their heart, thou wilt cause thine ear to hear : to judge the fatherless and the oppressed, that the man of the earth may no more oppress. ... It is God that girdeth me with strength, and maketh my way perfect. ... He teacheth my hands to war, so that a bow of steel is broken by mine arms. . . . Thou hast also given me the works of mine enemies ; that I might destroy them that hate me. . . . Some trust in chariots, and some in horses : but we will remember the name of the Lord our God. They are brought down and fallen : but we are risen and stand upright. . . . Many are the afflictions of the righteous : but the Lord delivereth him out of them all. He keepeth all his bones : not one of them is broken. Evil shall slay the wicked : and they that hate the righteous shall be desolate. . . . Blessed is he that considereth the poor : the Lord will deliver him in time of trouble. . . . For the Lord most high is terrible ; he is a great king over all the earth. He shall subdue the people under us, and the nations under our feet."
From the Proverbs,
"My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. . . , When wisdom entereth into thine heart, and knowledge is pleasant unto thy soul ; discretion shall preserve thee, under- standing shall keep thee. . . . Let not mercy and truth forsake thee : bind them about thy neck ; write them upon the table of thine heart : so shalt thou find favour and good understanding in
STUDY ON THE JEWS. 29
iLe sight of God and man. Trust in the Lord with all thine heart ; and lean not unto thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths. . . . Devise not evil against thy neighbour, seeing he dwelleth securely by thee. . . . The corse of the Lord is in the house of the wicked : but he blesseth the habitation of the just. Surely he scorneth the scomers : but he giveth grace unto the lowly."
STUDY ON I AND 2.
What seems to be the chief influence in Jewish life? Whafc class of people are most powerful? Prove it from 1 and 2. In what sort of works are they especially rich? What class produce these works? Judging from the extracts, what are some of the chief requirements of their moral code? ' What is true of its spirit? What classes are especially cared for? What historical reason for this? What virtues seem to be especially admired among them? How does their belief conspicuously differ from that of other peo- ples of their time ? How is their morality superior to that of the Assyrians? How does the quality of their poetry as seen in the Psalms compare with the hymns and prayers of the Assyrians and Egyptians ? What conspicuous quality of character do they ascribe to Jehovah? On what do they chiefly depend in war?
In Oenoral. — What did each of the nations we have been studying care for most? or, to put it differently, what was the ideal man and the ideal life among each people ? Which ideal was, in your opinion, the best ? What did each people do that has endured and been of use to all the world? Which people seem to you least useful? What is the application of the motto given on p. 3 ?
32 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
HELLAS, 1000(?)-338 B.C.
PERIODS OF HISTORY.i
A. Homeric, Heroic, Legendary Age before 776.
B. Colonizing, Formative Period, 776-600.
C. Struggle with the Persiane, 500-479.
D. Athenian Leaderehip, 4l79 -431.
E. Peioponneaian War, 431-404.
F. Spartan, Theban, and Macedonian Leaderehipe, 404-338.
G. Macedonian Conquest, 338.
" For the whole earth is the sepulchre of famous men ; not only art they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but tn foreign lands there dwells also an unwritten memorial of them, graven not on stone, but in the hearts of men. Make them your examples, and, esteeming courage to be freedom, and freedom to be happiness, do not weigh too nicely the perils of war." — Pebicles.
Note on Map of Ghreece. — The purple fish, which the Phoeni- cians used in dyeing their linens and wools, was found along the eastern shore of Greece ; this shore abounded in deep and sheltering bays, while the western coast was mostly composed of steep rock or flat marsh. Iron was found in Eubcsa, Boeotia, Melos, and Laconia, copper in Cyprus and Euboea, silver in Attica, gold and silver in Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus; marble was found in the moun- tains and islands, the best coming from Pares and Pentelioon. Nearly every state and island had its own fertile wheat-fields, its own mountain-forests, and sheep-pastures ; while the soil was favor- able for vine and olive culture.
The people dressed in wool or linen, and ate either barley or wheat bread, with olive oil for a relish, and wine for their drink ; in Arcadia, pork, in Attica, fish, was generally added to this diet.
1 Dates all B.C.
STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 33
STUDY ON MAP AND NOTE.
What natural boundaries has Greece in each direction ? Give the geogi*aphical reasons for the boundary of Thessaly. How far do these reasons apply to the boundaries of other Greek states ? What advan- tages are there in such boundaries? How far are the Greek states able to supply their own needs for clothing, food, weapons, and shelter? What effect will this have on the independence of the various states? Compare the size of the Greek states with other ancient and modem states.
Make a list of the occupations which you think the Greeks may have. Which of these occupations will be common to all Greece? Which will be found in Attica? In Arcadia? In Laconia? Will it be easier to get to Asia or to other parts of Europe from Greece ? Why? Why was it more desirable to go to Asia than to Europe easily ? From which state of Greece is that way easiest ?
Make a list of reasons why the geography of Greece is favorable to an early civilization. To which state of Greece do these reasons most strongly apply ?
A, STUDY ON HEROIO AGE.
Chief contemporary sources of its history: Homeric poems, the Iliad, Odyssey, and Hymns; the monuments at Mycenffl, Tiryns (in Argos), and in the Troad.
Other original sources : Hesiod and the Greek tragedians, Herodotus.
Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius, Duncker.
1. Same of the More Famous Events f Men, and Works of the Heroic or Mythical Age.
The Settlement of Greece. — In the Greek myths regard- ing the earliest settlement of Greece, we find it told that the founder of Athens came from Egypt ; that the rulers of Argos were partly of Egyptian race ; that the founder of Thebes was Cadmus the Phoenician ; and that Pelops, whose descendants became the kings of the Peloponnesus, vras of Asia Minor. The walls and sculptures of Mycense
h-i
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
were said to have been built by Asiatic help ; the intro- duction of the alphabet was ascribed to Cadmus; while wheat was said to have been introduced from Libya. In the Greek language, the following words are of Phoenician origin: linen, sack-cloth, myrrh, frankincense, cinnamon, soap, lyres, wine-jars, cosmetics, writing-tablets.
THB UON-OATB OF MYOENJB.
The Expedition of the Argonauts. — In Colchis, on the Black Sea, there was, it was said, a fleece of pure gold. To obtain this prize, Jason, a Thessalian Greek, sailed with a band of heroes through the Hellespont to Colchis, whence they brought this golden fleece.
STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 85
The Trojan War. — Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, had seized Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and had carried her home to the Troad. So Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon, king of My cense, called their warriors together and sailed for Troy, and with them went many other chiefs of Greece; notably, Achilles, king of the Myrmidons, from Thessaly ; Ajax, son of the king of Sala- mis; Diomed, a chief from Argos; Odysseus (Ulysses), king of Ithaca; Nestor, king of Pylos. For nine years they laid siege to Troy, which at last fell into their hands, and was destroyed.
The Dorian BCigration. — The Thessalians entered Thes- saly from Epirus, settling and naming the land. Those before dwelling in Thessaly moved to the southward; among them were the Dorians, who, under the lead of the sons of the god-born Heracles (Hercules), conquered and settled the greater part of Peloponnesus, forming the states of Sparta, Elis, Messenia, AryoSj Corinth, The lonians, who were before in Peloponnesus, now crossed to Lydia, where they founded twelve cities, Ephesus and Miletus being the greatest. The people of these twelve cities erected at Mycale a temple, called Panionium, where they all went and worshipped Poseidon, with a joyous festi' val. Such a union was called an Amphictyony, and similar unions were formed in many of the*Greek states.
The Homeilo Poems. — About 1000, the bards began to sing and recite the story of the Trojan war (the Iliad) and the wanderings of Odysseus on his return from Troy (Odyssey). The Iliad and Odyssey, together with certain hymns to the gods, have long been attributed to the poet Homer, though their authorship and date are much disputed.
The Eatabliahment of the Delphio Oracle. — The god Apollo, descending from Olympus, looked on the hills and groves of Greece, to choose a spot where he would reveal to men
36 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
the will of Zeus and the events of the future, and whence he would give them advice in their perplexing affairs. He chose the slopes of Parnassus, and there the temple of Delphi was built in his honor; and for priests he chose the Cretans of a passing ship, who knew the sacred hymns addressed to him in Crete. In this temple always dwelt a priestess, through whom Apollo spoke to men, told them of the future, and how to guide the present aright. Thus, according to the myth, was founded the famous Delphic Oracle. To guard it, a council was formed, comprising members from all the leading Greek states, and known as The Amphictyonic Council,
The Laws of Lyourgus. — (See p. 56.)
2. List of the Chief Gods of the Greeks^ with their Attributes.
Zeus (Jove, Jupiter), the god of the sky, controlling rains, clouds,
and weather in general. Poseidon (Neptune), god of the sea, controlling calm and storm. Apollo, god of wisdom, of medicine, music, and poetry ; giving power
to heal, and inspiring lays and poems ; afterward, god of the sun. Ares (Mars), god of war, of physical force, controlling the field of
battle. HsPHiESTUS (Vulcan), god of fire, and of all the forging and casting
and moulding of metals; giving skill in all metal work; repre- sented as lame. Hermes (Mercury), god of Running ; of inventive skill ; of commercial
sharpness and wit. Hera (Juno), wife of Zeus and queen of the sky. Athena (Minerva), daughter of Zeus, and goddess of wisdom; of
strategy in war ; of housewifery. Artemis (Diana), sister of Apollo, goddess of hunting; afterward
goddess of the moon . Aphrodite (Venus), goddess controlling marriage and love, Demeter (Ceres), goddess of harvest, controlling the yield of the seed
and the fertility of the soil. Hestia (Vesta), goddess of fire, especially of the hearth-fire, thus
becoming the deity of the home.
STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 37
These were the twelve great gods ; besides these, Diony- sius (Bacchus) was widely worshipped. He was the god of wine, controlling the yield of the vineyards and inspir- ing drunken madness. Every wood, every stream, every mountain, had its own presiding spirit, who might be approached and pleased by prayers and gifts.
The following phrases are used of the gods : " the gods who live forever;" "all power is with the gods;" "the gods, if willing, can save a man, even from a distance."
STUDY ON I AND 2.
lu what way were the Greeks evidestly accustomed to go from place zo place? What occupation would this encourage? What effect would this habit have on civilization? Why? What do the myths indicate of the origin of Greek civilization ? What does the list of words given tell us of the Phoenicians? Of the Greeks? Which tribes were most active in the Heroic Age? Why should an early movement have taken place to gain Thessaly? (See Map.) In what geographical directions did the Greek movements t.ake place? Why? What do you understand by an Amphictyony? Name two things which were in common to those belonging to an Amphictyony.
What does 2 indicate in regard to the occupations of the .Greeks? What reason had they for propitiating each of their gods? What relation evidently existed between their religion and their life and surroundings?
WhiEkt proofs of intellectual life among the Greeks of the Heroic Age ? Wliat directions did it take. The ** Lion-gate " indicates the beginnings of what arts?
S. Extracts Illustrative of Heroic Age.
a. Agamemnon's Councils of War, (Iliad.)
In the ninth and final year of the Trojan war, the issues of the contest still being doubtAil, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, called together a '^council of the great-hearted elders," the leaders of the people, and said : *^ A dream from heaven came to me in my sleep . . . and charged me, saying ; . . . ' To sleep all night beseemeth not one who is a councilor, to whom the host is entrusted. ... I am a messenger to thee from Zeus who . . .
38 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
hath great care for thee and pity. He biddeth thee call to arms the Greeks, for now thou may est take . . . tlie city of the Tro- jans.* So spake the dream. ... So come, let us now call to arms . . . the sons of the Greeks. But first I will make trial of them . . . and will bid them flee . . . only do ye from this side and from that speak to hold them back." To this the chiefs agreed, and when the people were assembled, Agamemnon pro- posed a return to Greece, " and tliey with shouting hasted to the ships ; " but Odysseus, king of Ithaca, who had been pres- ent at the council of the elders, ran among the folk to call them back ; ' ' whenever he found one that was a captain and a man of mark, he . . . refrained him with gentle words : ' Good sir, it is not seemly to affright thee like a coward, but do thou sit thyself and make all thy folks sit down.' . . . But whatevei man of the people he saw . . . shouting, him he drave with his scepter and chode . . . ; * Good sir, sit still and heark- en to the words of others that are thy betters ; but thou art no warrior and . . . never reckoned; whether in battle or in council ... let there be one master, one king, whom Zeus hath given the scepter and made the giver of the laws to all the rest.' "
The assembled Greeks were now addressed in favor of war, first by one and then another prince ; at last, after a speech by Odysseus, the Greeks " shouted aloud and praised the saying of godlike " Odysseus ; and after two more speeches from their princes they eagerly went to their tents to prepare for battle. " And they did sacrifice, each man to one of the everlasting gods, praying for escape from death." But Agamemnon offered sac- rifice to Zeus, *' and emailed the elders, the princes of the . . . host," to stand around the sacrifice while thus he pra3'ed ; '* Zeus, most glorious, most great god of the stormcloud, . . . grant that the sun set not, . . . till I have laid low upon the earth Priam's palace."
Then each chief marshalled his own men for war, except Achilles, who was angry with Agamemnon (see/.), and would neither come to council nor to war, though Agamemnon sent him many gifts, entreating him.
STUDY ON HEROIC A*GE. 89
Again, while the Trojans were keeping watch, the Greeks *' were holden of heaven-sent panic " ; and again Agamemnon summoned an assembly, in which he advised a return to Greece ; but all kept silence until prince Diomed arose and said ; — ... " With thee first in thy folly will I contend. . . . O King . . . deemest thou that the sons of the Greeks are thus indeed cow- ards? ... if thine own heart is set on departing, go thy way. . . . But the rest will tarry here." Him the Greeks applauded, shouting aloud, and after him another chief arose and advised Agamemnon to call a council of the elders, saying, "In the gathering of many shalt thou listen to him that deviseth the most prudent council ; " and thus did Agamemnon.
b. The Law-suit. (Hiad.)
'* The folk were gathered in the assembly-place, for there a strife was arisen, two men striving about the price of a man slain ; ^ the one avowed that he had paid all, expounding to the people, but the other denied that he had received aught : . . . and the folk were cheering both, as they took part on either side ; . . . while the elders were sitting in the sacred circle. . . . Then before the people, they rose up and gave judgment."
STUDY ON a AND b.
What title has the chief ruler among the Greeks ? Make a list ot the things which he does. What title may he have on account of each one of these duties? How is his will made known to the people? How does he know the opinion of the people ? Who help him accom- plish his will? How do these men know his will? What means do they take to make the people obey ? What means does Agamemnon take to make the other chiefs or kings obey ? (See case of AchiDes.) How many sorts of assemblies, or meetings, do we see among the Greeks ? Who compose each, and what is the use of each ? What takes the place of each nowadays, in our own country ? How do the people show their opinion of proposals made to them ? How do the follow- ing extracts show this government to have been supported ?
* In case of murder, the matter was often settled by the murderer's pay- ing a sum of money to relatives of the man murdered.
40 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
Odysseus, king of Ithaca, found, on his return, that his wife's suitors had wantonly wasted his rich flocks, whereupon he said: *<But as for the sheep which the proud wooers have slain, I myself will [seize] many more as spoil, and others the Greeks will give, till they fill all my folds. . . . But now go to my well-wooded farm-land ; " there, we are told, were rich vineyards, and orchards of pear and apple, fig and olive trees.
Achilles, king of the Myi-midons, says, speaking of his successes in war : ** Many a man I took alive and sold."
Compare this form of government with that of Egypt or Assyria. What is the most conspicuous difference?
c. Penelope and Telemachus, (Odyssey.)
Odysseus was so delayed in his return to Ithaca, that most of the Ithacans thought him dead ; and many chiefs came to woo his wife Penelope, but she put them off, hoping against hope for the return of her husband. One day, as she was weaving with her women, she heard a minstrel singing to her suitors of the faring of the Greeks from Troy, and weeping she appeared from her chamber, and asked him to change his theme ; but Telemachus, her son, said to her : . . . " Let thy heart and mine endure to listen, for not Odysseus only lost in Troy the day of his returning, but many another likewise perished. Howbeit, go to thy chamber and mind thine own housewiferies, the loom and distaff. . . . But speech shall be for men . . . but for me in dhief ; for mine is the lordship in the house." Soon after, one of the suitors becoming importunate, said to Telemachus: "... Send away thy mother and bid her be married to whom- soever her father commands, and whoso is well pleasing to her." But Telemachus replied : '* I may in no wise thrust forth . . . the woman that bare me, that reared me : ... for I shall have evil at the hand of her father, and some god will give me more besides . . . and I shall have blame of men."
d, Odysseus and the Phceacians, (Odyssey.)
In the course of his wanderings, Odysseus was shipwrecked on the coast of Phseacia (mythical) . Meanwhile, Nausicaa,
STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 41
the daughter of ... a Phseacian king, came down to the river- side with her maidens to wash ; and while the clothes were dry- ing and the maidens playing ball, Odysseus appeared, asking help ; and the princess directed him to the palace where her mother was weaving and her father sitting among the council- ors. The next day, the king made a feast for Odysseus, and after it, a minstrel ^^ that was had in honor of the people " sang a song of heroes ; then all went forth to games, matches in wrestling, racing, and throwing, in leaping and boxing ; and the king's son asked Odysseus to join them, saying, ^' . . . there is no greater glory for a man while yet he lives, than that which be achieves by hand and foot." Odysseus consenting, won the praise of all by his strength and skill; then the king called forth the dancers, '^ that so the stranger may tell his friends • . . how far we surpass all men ... in speed of foot, and in the dance and song." Then the '^ divine " minstrel sang again, and Odysseus told the company the story of his wanderings.
e. The Return of Odysseus, (Odyssey.)
On the return of Odysseus, the first man whom he met was his swineherd, EumsBus, who not knowing him, yet asked him to his hut, and gave him bread and meat and wine, and when Odysseus said, '^ May Zeus . . . and all the other deathless gods grant thee thy dearest wish, since thou hast received me heartily," the swineherd answered, "It were an impious thing for me to slight a stranger ... for from Zeus are all strangers and beggars ; ... the gods have stayed the returning of my master, who would have loved me diligently and given me some- what of my own, a house and a parcel of ground, and a comely wife such as a kind lord gives to his man." And Eumseus told him of the insolent wooers, saying, *' Verily the blessed gods love not froward deeds but . . . justice and the righteous deeds of men." Afterward Odysseus asked the swineherd how he chanced to come to Ithaca : " Was «... town taken and sacked, wherein dwelt thy father and thy lady-mother, or did unfriendly men find thee lonely . . . and ship thee hence and sell thee into the house of thy master here ? "
42 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOBY.
Eumseus replied that he was born a king's son in a far-off land ; but that his nurse, enticed away by Phoenicians, carried him with her to tbeir ship, which quickl^'^ sailed away; and coming to Ithaca sold him to the king.
On reaching the palace and being still unrecognized, Odys- seus boasted of his strength to mow a whole day long, and to plow a straight and even furrow ; and later revealed himself to Penelope by reminding her of how he had made his own bed- stead, smoothing it with the adze, boring it with the anger, inlaying it with ivory, silver, and gold, and how about it he had built a chamber, " with stones close-set."
STUDY ON c, <l, 6.
Judging from these extracts, how many wives does one husband have ? What form of marriage is this called ? Who rules the house V What three things check the exercise of this power ? What name is given to this form of family ? Say all you can of the position of woman as indicated in the above extracts.
Make a list of the occupations named or indicated. How do kings and princesses occupy themselves ? Compare their occupations with those of common people. With those of modern kings and queens. What remark can you make (a) about simplicity? and (b) about equality, then as compared with now ? How is Odysseus treated by the king ? by the swineherd ?
How do the Greeks amuse themselves ? Have such amusements a good or bad effect ? Good or bad in what way ?
To what social class does Euraaeus belong? How does he com- pare ^ in birth with Odysseus ? How is he treated ? How are the men belonging to this class obtained? What other classes appear? [See, also, p. 38, account of Odysseus summoning the Greeks to council.]
/. The Wrath of ApoUo. (Iliad.)
The priest of Apollo had come to Agamemnon to ransom his daughter, whom the Greeks had taken prisoner ; but Aga- memnon refused his gifts, and the priest, going apart, thus prayed Apollo: ''Hear me, god of the silver bow ... If ever I built a temple gracious in thine eyes, or if ever I
STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 48
burnt to thee fat flesh of bulls or goats, fulfil thou this my prayer ; let the [Greeks] pay by thine aiTOws for my tears.*' And Apollo hearing him, ^^came down from the peaks of Olympus wroth in heart. . . . And the arrows clanged upon his shoulders in his wrath, as the god moved." For nine days he sent a plague among the Greeks, but on the tenth, Achilles called a council, '' for in his mind the goddess Hera of the white arms put the thought," for she grieved to see the sick and dying Greeks. And Achilles thus advised: ^^Come, let us now enquire of some soothsayer or priest or an interpreter of dreams, . . . who shall say wherefore Apollo is so wroth." Thea an augur arose, declaring that Apollo would never cease his anger till Agamemnon should restore the daughter of his priest. Agamemnon, though much enraged, obeyed, but demanded as a recompense the maid who had been given to Achilles. Then a grave quarrel arose until Achilles was even about to draw his sword on Agamemnon ; but ^^ the bright-eyed goddess Athene " suddenly appeared and bade him put back the sword, and cease from present strife ; and Achilles, though reluctant, yielded, saying, "whosoever obeyeth the gods, to him they gladly hearken." So the priest regained his daughter and prayed Apollo to remove the plague from the Greeks ; and ^* Apollo heard him," and the Greeks offered sacrifices and " all day long . . . worshiped the god with music . . • and his heart was glad to hear."
g. The Feast on Olympus.
The goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had accused him of plan- ning mischief to the Greeks, but Zeus replied, '* Abide thou in silence and hearken to my bidding." Then Hera feared, and all the gods were troubled ; but her son, the lame Hephses- tus, advised her to submit and speak to Zeus with gentle words, and not "bring wrangling among the gods." "Then he poured wine to all the . . . gods, ladling the sweet nectar from the bowl. And laughter unquenchable arose among the blessed gods to see Hephaestus bustling through the
46 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOBY.
palace. So feasted they all day till the setting of the snn ; nor was their soul aught stinted of the fair banquet, nor of the beauteous lyre that Apollo held. . . . Now when the bright light of the sun was set, these went each to his own house to sleep, where each one had his palace ipade with cunning device by famed Hephaestus,"
h. The Visit of Odysseus to Hades,
Odysseus was permitted, while yet alive, to visit the homes of the dead ; and first he '^ besought the tribes of the dead in vows and prayers" and offered sacrifice to them; and then about him came ^^ the spirits of . . . old men of many and evil days, and tender maidens . . . and many . . • wounded with bronze-shod spears, men slain in fight with their bloody mail about them." And among them was the spirit of his mother; but when he tried to embrace her, she flitted away like ''a shadow " or ^' a dream." Among the rest he saw Achilles, who told him: ^'Bather would I live upon the earth as the hireling or the landless man, who has no great livelihood, than bear sway among all the dead."
STUDY ON /, g, hf REFERRING ALSO TO 2.
What did the Greeks believe (a) about the number, (h) about the power, (c) about the relative rank of their gods? What part or parts of the world seemed to them under divine direction ? It is said that the Greek gods were anthropomorphic, or like men : prove it from the text. How were they like men ? How unlike ? How did the Greeks believe they could please or persuade their gods? Discover their will? What spirit seemed to pervade their worship? Look over previous work, and find additional facts to prove what you have said. What difference between the Greek, the Egyptian, and the Assyrian gods ? Find three things that the Greeks believed of the future state.
STUDY OP HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 47
B. STUDY OH HBTOBIO OEEEOE, OR HELLAB, 776^600.
I. General Hellenic Development. II. Studies of Special States.
1. The Constitution and Laws of Sparta.
2. The Development of the Athenian Constitution.
Principal contemporary sources of history : Herodotus ; lyric poets of period ; monuments and remains at Olympia, at Psestum, Poseidonia, Agrigentum, and other places in Sicily and Southern Italy ; at Ephesus, Assos ; in Samos, and other islands of the jEgsean.
Other principal origin«al sources : Thucydides, Plutarch, Aristotle, Xenophon.
Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius.
Note on the Map. — In Illyria were to be found cattle and slaves, bitumen, timber, and silver ; in exchange for these, the Greeks gave the Illyrians salt and salt-fish, oil and wine; while to the Illyrian chiefs they gave the finely woven wool of Miletus, the famous pottery of Corcyra, or wrought ornaments of gold and silver, whose material had come, perhaps, from the rich mines of Thrace. The lands about Gyrene and about the Italian and Sicilian towns, as well as the whole of Asia Minor, were rich in cattle and wheat, in wine and oil. From Athens went figs and olives, pottery and silver ; from Chalcis, famous swords of bronze, wrought from the copper and iron of the neighboring mines ; from Corinth, pottery and bronze, and the best-built ships.
The colonies about the Black Sea were mostly the daughter-cities of Miletus ; to those on the southern shore, flocked the caravans of Assyria and India; to those on the east, the Phasis washed down the gold of Caucasus ; to those on the north and west, came wheat and timber, flocks and herds, and Scythian gold.
STUDY ON THE MAP AND NOTE. What part of each country is occupied by the Greeks? What objects do you fancy the Greeks have in founding colonies? Why should they choose the locations in which we find them ? Which of the occupations of Homeric Greece seem to have become predominant, judging from the map? What occupations support this one ? Which of the Greek races lead in this occupation? What effect has this occupation on the unity of Greek territory ? Why ?
48 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
What waters are familiar to the Greeks? Name four of their colonies that seem peculiarly important to you by their position. Which of them are placed where important modern cities now stand? Which one would you choose as the most important of all, and why? Why are so many placed at the mouths of rivers?
Make a list of the occupations and trades evidently known to the Greeks at this time. What occupations seem to be most prevalent among the people living near the Greek colonies, and what do you judge their state of civilization to have been? What effect will the colonies have upon these people ?
B. I. Study of General Hellenic Development, 776-490 B.C
1. CLASSES OF PEOPLE FOUND IN GREECE.
a. In Laoonia. — Spartans^ descendants of the Dorians who conquered Peloponnesus; they hold the best land, govern, determine peace and war, lead in battle and share its spoils. They are supported by the produce of their own land, which is worked for them by Helots, or serfs ; and the only occupation allowed them is that of war.
Perioeciy descendants of the original inhabitants of Laconia. They serve the Spartans in war, but are other- wise free, and engage in all sorts of occupations.
JTelots ; these are serfs whose duty it is to till the land owned by the Spartan state.
b. In Attica. — lonians^ descended from Ionian con- querors of Athens; position in Attica similar to that of Spartans in Laconia, but allowed to engage in various occupations.
MeticB^ the free non-Ionian inhabitants of Attica, pro- tected by its laws but having no share in its government.
Slaves^ the personal and private property of the inhabi- tants of Attica; that is, belonging to individuals, for whom they perform all sorts of service and labor.
Similar classes, with local differences, are found in all the Greek states. In each state the ruling class believes
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 49
itself descended from some common ancestor of divine or heroic birth, whom they honor with games, festivals, and sacrifices. Thus, all the Dorians honor fferaehs^ and all the lonians, Ion, the son of Apollo ; each tribe of lonians or Dorians has, moreover, its own special ancestor, whom all its members may worship in common.
2. LIST OP LEADING EVENTS OF THE PERIOD.
776.
The Olympio Bra. — The Olympic games were celebrated in honor of Olympian Zeus, at his temple at Olympia, in Elis. They consisted in contests in running, leaping, throwing the disk, boxing, and wrestling, and afterward, chariot racing became an important feature. The prize of victory was simply a wreath of the wild olive. Sparta arranged with Elis the laws for the games, to which only Greeks were admitted. Statues were erected to the victors, of which the historian Pausanias, visiting Olympia in the second century B.C., mentions 200 as noteworthy from a much larger number. During the time of the games, truce was proclaimed in all the states whose citi- zens were engaged at Olympia. In 776, the records of victors in these games began to be kept, and from this year the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads, or periods of four years each ; for instance, an event occurring by our chronology in 770 B.c. would be dated by them as belong- ing to the second Olympiad.
The Spartans conquer Messenia whose inhabi tants either emigrate or become Spartan Helots Those emigrating to Sicily found Messana. The
778
TO 600.
Spartans also conquer a mountain frontier for themselves from Arcadia; Syracuse, Tarentum, Massalia, Corcyra, Cyrene, and most of the other Greek colonies, are founded during this period. Egypt is opened to Greek merchants, who also find their way to Spain, and bring thence an
50 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
enormous amount of metal. In gratitude for this dis covery, they dedicate to the Samiaii Juno a large bronze vase» richly ornamented -and representing a tenth of their gains. In Megara, a man said to have been a cook over- throws the government of nobles, and he and his descend- ants rule the state for about a hundred years. In Corinth, also, the government of the few or of the nobles (Oli- garchy) is overthrown by the leaders of the people, Cypselus and his son Periander, who themselves succes- sively hold the chief power. By these men a gilt colossal statue of Zeus is dedicated to the god at Olympia, and a large chest of cedar-wood, overlaid with carved gold and ivory, is offered to Hera. In other Greek states, also, the oligarchies are overthrown by popular leaders or power- ful men, who become rulers under the title of "Tyrant** or "despot." In several cases these "Tyrants" are put down by the help of Sparta, who always opposes them.
For Athens, see B. II. 2.
600
TO
ff90.
The first sacred war occurs, caused as fol- lows: the pilgrims to Delphi are annoyed and heavily taxed by the neighboring city Cirrha; and at last, on the motion of the Athenian Solon, the states of the Delphic Amphictyony join forces and destroy Cirrha, and, dedicating the land on which it stood to Apollo, there hold the Pythian games; these games are at first simple contests in music and poetry, but afterwards races and athletic sports are added.
The Nemean games are established in honor of Zeus, and the Isthmean in honor of Poseidon. Sparta gains part of the Argi ve territory, Croesus.
590
TO
ftOO.
king of Lydia, asks for aid from Greece, addressing him- self to the Spartans.
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 51
3. LIST OF FAMOUS NAMES OF THE PERIOD.
|
ll/ames. |
BirtJi and Circumstance. |
1^ 1*^ |
Cause of Fame. |
|
Alc»U8. |
Lesbos: citi- |
7th |
Lyric poet : that is, wrote short poems |
|
zen. |
descriptive of feelings, passions, mo- mentary impressions; many poems on love, on music, on particular events and persons ; invented new poetic measures. |
||
|
Ale man. |
Sardi8:saidto |
7th |
Lyric poet: made new arrangements |
|
have been a |
of music. |
||
|
slave. |
|||
|
Anaximander. |
Miletus. |
6th |
Made the first map, first globe and sun-dial ; geographer, astronomer, geometrician ; taught that the world arose from a chaotic mixture of mat- ter; philosopher. |
|
Archilochns. |
Paros: poor; |
7th |
Lyric poet, writing also on war; in- |
|
son of slave- |
vented new poetic forms. |
||
|
mother. |
|||
|
Arion. |
Lesbos: trav- |
7th |
Improvised lyric songs and poems at |
|
elling harper. |
the festivals and at courts; much patronized by Periander, the tyrant of Corinth. |
||
|
Coriniia. |
Bceotian. |
6th |
Lyric poetess : teacher of Pindar, from whom she took tlie prize at one of the sacred festivals of Thebes. |
|
CypseluB. |
Tyrant of Corinth. |
7th |
See 2. |
|
Hecatseus. |
Citizen of Miletus. |
6th |
Geographer; philosopher. |
|
Heraclitu& |
Citizen of |
6th |
Taught that a fiery ether was the |
|
Ephesus. |
source and original material of the universe; philosopher. |
||
|
Hesiod |
BoBoUa (?) : |
8th |
Poet : writing on the gods, on the his- |
|
citizen. |
tory of creation, and the first races of man ; also, didactic poems, giving directions for agriculture. |
||
|
M&o. |
Crotona, in |
6th |
Athlete: six times crowned victor at |
|
Italy : citizen |
Olympia, and six times in the Pyth- |
||
|
and general. |
ian games, for skill in wrestling. |
52
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
|
Mamet. |
Birth and |
1^ |
Oau— of Fam€. |
|
Phidon. |
Tyrant of |
8th |
Adopted the Aaiatic atandards of |
|
Argoa. |
weight, meaaurea, and coin, which were introduced into Peloponnesua, and later into northern Hellas. |
||
|
Periander. |
Tyrant of Corinth. |
7th |
See 2. |
|
Pjthagoras. |
Samoa : taught |
6th |
Trayeller, geometrician: taught that |
|
in Magna |
the univerae ia created after an ex- |
||
|
Grsecia; aon |
act harmonious order, and that the |
||
|
of a rich mer- |
end of human life is yirtue ; phi- |
||
|
chant; citizen. |
losopher. |
||
|
Sappho. |
Leaboa. |
6th |
Poeteaa: invented new poetic meas- urea; taught poetry and music among the women of Aaia Minor. |
|
Solon. |
Athenian citi- zen of noble birth. |
6th |
Lawgiver and poet (aee p. 63). |
|
Stesichorus. |
Sicily. |
6th |
Lyric poet: made new arrangements of verse. |
|
Terpander. |
Leaboa. |
7th |
Invented a better harp on which to accompany the Homeric hymna ; gained the prize at a great Lacede- monian featival. |
|
Thales. |
Citizen of |
6th |
Aatronomer, phyaiologist, geometri- |
|
Miletus. |
cian : taught that the original element of the universe ia water, and that the univerae ia animated by a living aoul; philoaopher. |
||
|
Theapis. |
Megara. |
6th |
Firat dramatic poet: uaing for ma- terial the atoriea of Greek mythology. |
|
Tyrtaeua. |
Attica; lame |
7th |
War aonga ; new arrangement of music ; |
|
achoolmaater. |
poet. |
||
|
Xenophanea. |
Lydia (Ionian |
6th |
Poet, writing on philosophy; taught |
|
Greek). |
that there ia one God, "neither in body like unto mortala» neither in mind"; attacked the old religioua mytha. |
STUDY OP HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 68
Other famous works of this period: The temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus ; of Hera, at Samos ; of Posei- don, at Poseidonia (Paestum) in Italy ; three great temples at Agrigentum in Sicily ; an artificial harbor at Corinth ; the discovery of the casting of bronze in Samos, and of welding iron in Chios ; at the latter place was made a famous iron stand for a silver censer that the king of Lydia sent to Delphi.
STUDY ON I, 2, AND 3.
What two bonds of union existed among the Dorians? lonians? How far was the position of Perioeci or Metics oppressive ? In what regard was it favorable? Differences between Helots and slaves.
Which was the leading Greek state in this period? Name three facts which prove it. What were the great centres of Greek life in general ? What important common interests had the Greeks ? What institutions and what event prove this? If you read that something occuiTed in the 15th Olympiad, what date will you assign it in our own chronology ? With what class of people does the Tyrant seem to have been associated, or to have represented? What characterized the Greek worship ? What influence would such a worship have on (a) physique, (6) intellect, (c) art? What proofs have we from 2 and 3 that it did have such an influence in directions (b) and (c) ? Was the simplicity of the Olympic prize good or bad? Why?
Name all the directions in which Greek activity turns itself during this period. Of these, name the two chief ones. What parts of the Greek world manifest this activity ? What reason can you offer for this? What stimulated poetry among the Greeks? Art? What arts ? What relation between the Tyrants and art and civilization ? What was evidently meant by philosophy among the Greeks ?
What position or station or birth was necessary to acquire greatness among the Greeks? What gave men greatness ? Compare with the great men and deeds of Egypt and Assyria. What sort of civiliza- tion is evidently arising among the Greeks ?
4* Extracts lUustrative of Period.
a. The Founding of Gyrene, (Herodotus.)
As the king of Thera was consulting the Delphic oracle about other affairs, the oracle advised him to found a colony in
64 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
Libya [Africa]. Accordingly men set sail from Thera t« explore, and landing on Platea, an island near the Libyan coast, sent back word that they had taken possession of Libya ; '*■ the Theraeans resolved, therefore, to send one of every family " of their own city to the new colony. But nothing turning out prosperously, they inquired at Delphi, saying, ''they had settled in Libya and fared no better." But the oracle replied that they had not yet reached Libya ; nor would the god ''release them from founding the colony until they had come to Libya itself." So seeking flirther, they founded Cyrene, establishing there the same religious rites and wor- ship they were accustomed to in Thera.
b. Solon and Croesus, (Herodotus.)
When Solon, the Athenian, visited Croesus, king of Lydia, the latter showed him all his splendid treasures ; '^ and when he had seen and examined everything sufficiently, Croesus asked him ... ' Who is the most happy man that you have seen?'" Solon answered, "Tellus, the Athenian, because he lived in a well-governed commonwealth ; had sons who were virtuous and good . . . and coming to the assistance of the Athenians in a battle ... he put the enemy to flight, and died nobly. The Athenians buried him at the public charge . . . and honored him greatly." Croesus then asked for the next happiest man whom Solon had seen, and Solon gave the names of two youths of Argos, because they had a sufficient fortune, and had withal, such strength of body, that they were both alike victorious in the public games ; and he added this story, that " when the Argives were celebrating a feast of Hera, it was necessary that the mother of these youths h% drawn to the temple in a chariot; and since the oxen did not come from the field in time, the young men . . . drew the car in which their mother sate " ; and the men of Argos, who stood around, praised the strength of the youths ^ and " the women blessed her as the mother of such sons " ; and after their death, the Argives " caused their statues to be dedicated at Delphi."
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 56
c. The Lydian Kings and Delphi.
Once, when Alyattes, the father of this Crcesus, was making war, a temple of Athena was accidentally burned, and shortly after he fell sick. '* When the disease continued a considerable time, he sent messengers to Delphi to consult the oracle. . . . The Pythian, however, refused to give any answer . . . until the temple of Athena was rebuilt." This then Alj'attes imme- diately attended to, and shortly after he recovered, and sent to Delphi a large silver bowl inlaid with iron.
The very first of the Lydian kings had been confirmed in his kingdom by the Delphic oracle, to which he sent a great quan- tity of gold and silver, notably, six golden bowls. Croesus himself, to show his esteem for the oracle, had sent thither the figure of a lion in fine gold, bowls of gold and silver of "no common work," fine-wrought vases, the statue of a woman, and the necklaces and girdles of his wife.
d. The Marriage of ClistJienes' DaugJUer,
Clisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon, had a daughter whom he ** resolved to give in marriage to . . . the most accomplished of all the Greeks. When, therefore, the Olympian games were being celebrated, Clisthenes, being victorious in them . . . made there a proclamation," inviting to Sicyon " whoever of the Greeks deemed himself worthy to become the son-in-law of Clisthenes." Thereupon suitors came from Italy and the Adriatic shore ; from Peloponnesus and Athens, and even from Thessaly and the Hellespont. "When the day appointed for the . . . marriage arrived . . . Clisthenes, having sacrificed a hundred oxen, entertained the suitors . . . and when they had concluded the feast, they had a contest in music and conversa- tion, in order to show their powers." One of the Athenians now "ordered the flute-player to play a dance; and when the flute-player obeyed, he began to dance . . . Laeonian figures . . . and then Attic ones ; and in the third place, having leant hfs head on the table, he gesticulated with his legs." Then Clis- thenes, " no longer able to restrain himself, said . . . ' You
66 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
have danced away your marriage,'" and chose as his son-in-law the Athenian Megacles. The child of this marriage was Clisthenes, the Athenian law-giver.
STUDY ON 4.
What were the two bonds of union between the mother-city of Thera and the colony of Cyrene? Where have we found these bonds of union before ? What sort of power and knowledge displayed by the Delphic oracle ? What men were most admired among the Greeks (their ideals)? What influence had the Delphic oracle on art through its connection with Lydia? Why did Clisthenes choose the Olympic games as the place for his proclamation? What facts justified bis choice? AVhat does that story tell us of Greek amusements? Of Greek refinement?
In General. — What common bond of union or what conmion interest have all the Greeks ? What bonds of union in their various units, — colonies, tribes, amphictyonies, social classes ? What do the facts of 2, 3, and 4, so far as given, indicate of the position of woman ? Of individual liberty ? Of the Greek ideal ? Of the leading Greek occupation and source of Greek wealth ? How far does each of these facts find some explanation in the Heroic Age? It is said that Greece was composed of a multitude of little independent states ; what reason have you for thinking so from the facts of this period?
II. 1. The Constitution and Laws of Sparta.
The constitution and laws of Sparta were by antiquity credited to the Spartan Lycurgus, a man of royal blood who was said to have studied the laws of Crete as a model for those of Sparta, and whose introduction of these laws was sanctioned by the Delphic oracle (see p. 35). The following table represents the various parts of the state, and their relative duties, according to this constitution : —
STUDY OF UXSTOBIO GBBECE, OB HELLAS.
67
I
S
^ a * I
•w o « 9
^ q -
JJ ts-s § s
:g
I
lilll
5
a
at
2 « ** «
_ W 01 ** ^ fl*
5 o • 2 -•«
II J I s i
§ o "aJ o
&
I
a i
S.
IS.
o
§
I I
I *
O -G
^1^ ► g.*'
S 2 I ?
[1^ C8 .2 o ^
>» .9
^^8
5.^ I as
« ^ ±» -^ <» g -g
cSi
58 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
The so-called institutions of Lycurgus, or laws of Sparta, appear in the following account, adapted from Plutarch.
According to the legend, Lycurgus, on going to Delphi, obtained the promise that the laws that he ^should make would be the best in the world: returning to Sparta, he so arranged matters as to give a piece of land in heredi- tary possession to every Spartan family. " Each lot was capable of producing . . . enough for health. . . . He also introduced . . . public tables, where all were to eat in common of the same meat, and such kinds as were ap- pointed by law." Their food was bread, cheese, figs, and wine, with occasional flesh. The women, the men over sixty, the children under seven, ate at home, and on rare occasions the citizens were allowed to join them, but not even the kings found it easy to gain this permission. After dinner ** they went home without lights . . . that they might accustom themselves to march boldly in the darkest night. . . . Another law . . . directed that the ceil- ings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe, and the doors with nothing but the saw. ... He ordered the virgins to exercise themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and darts," that their children might be strong and vigorous.
Every child must be " examined at birth by the most ancient men of the tribe. ... If it were strong and well- proportioned, they gave orders for its education ; . . . but if it were weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be thrown . . . into a deep cavern. . . . The nurses accustomed the children to any sort of food, to have no terrors in the dark, nor to be afraid of being alone. ... As soon as they were seven years old, Lycurgus ordered them to be en- rolled in companies . . . where they had their exercises and recreations in common." These exercises consisted
STUDY OP HIBTORIO GREECE, OB HELIiAS. 5?
in military and gymnastic drill, in trials of strength and in mock-battles. ^* They slept in companies, in beds made • . • of reeds which they gathered with their own hands. . . . The old men were present at their diversions ... to observe, instruct, and chastise."
From childhood they were accustomed to hear all the discourses of their elders upon the characters and affairs of their countrymen. "If one of them were asked, ^Who is a good citizen, or an infamous one?' and hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy of slow mind, and of a sort that would not aspire to honor. The answer was likewise to have a reason assigned for it."
This manner of life was followed by the Spartan citizens till old age. Nor was their life without its pleasures; when not engaged in war or drill, they were hunting, dancing, or conversing. Such were the institutions of Lycurgus, who was afterwards worshipped as a god among the Spartans.
The following are some of the stories told of Spartans : A Spartan boy, having stolen a young fox, and concealed him under his garment, allowed the creature to tear out his vitals with his teeth and claws, rather than suffer detection. As to the question whether they should enclose Sparta with walls, it was answered, "That city is well fortified which has a wall of men instead of brick." XeuxLs, one of the most famous of Greek painters, wishing to make the most beautiful picture of Venus, sought for his models among the Spartan virgins. In one of the plays of Aristophanes, an Athenian lady thus addresses Lampito, a Lacedaemonian wife, "O dearest Spartan, O Lampito, welcome ! How beautiful you look, sweetest one, how fresh your complexion ! You could throttle an ox." " Yes," says she, " I think I could." A Spartan mother
60 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
sent her five sons to war, and, knowing that a battle had taken place, she waited for news on the outside of the cit)'. Some one came up to her and told her that all her sons had perished. " You vile slave," said she, " that is not what I wanted to know ; I want to know how fares my country." " Victorious," said he. " Willingly then," said she, " do I hear of the death of my sons." When Croesus was ad- vised by the oracle to obtain a Greek ally in an approach- ing war, he sent for aid to Sparta; and on one occasion, when Athens and Megara had been long at war, they left the decision of their quarrel to a commission from Sparta.
STUDY ON II. 1.
Who compose the Spartan state? What marks a man as a Spartan? In other words, what bonds of imion exist among the Spartans? AV ho holds the chief power in the Spartan state ? What checks upon this power ? What resemblances do you find between the Spartan and the Homeric constitution? What difference? What part of the state has lost power since Homeric times ? Whom does the chief power in this government represent? What takes the place nowadays of the general assembly in its function of hearing news, laws, etc. ? What name can you give to this sort of govern- ment,— (a) considering Spartans alone? (b) considering all the inhabitants of Laconia?
AVhat gave the institutions of Lycurgus their power over the people, and what enabled them to keep that power? What seems to have been the great aim of these institutions ? How did each provision made help to attain that aim? What means had they for training the intellect? What elements of character were evidently sought for? What sentiment was cherished by the common treatment of all? What effect would such institutions have upon the family life? Upon the physique? Upon the manners? What adjectives would you apply- to the Spartan life ? What do you infer as to the position of women in such a state? How would labor be regarded in such a state? Why? Did the Spartan laws look to the good of the individual, the family, or the state ? AVhat does each story told of Sparta show as to the influence of her discipline? What was her position among Greek states ? What was evidently her ideal ?
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 61
II. 2. The Development of the Athenian CongiUution*
a. Athens before Solon. 776-594 B.C.
In Athens, before Solon, every family had its own tomb, generally near the house ; here and at the family hearth they worshipped together their common ancestor. The following is a prayer offered by a daughter at the tomb of her father: " Take pity on me and on my brother Orestes ; make him return to this country ; hear my praj-er, O my father ; grant my wishes, receiving my offerings." If sons were adopted, or daughters married into a family, this was accomplished by teaching them how to share in its wor- ship, which thus became their own. A union of such fam- ilies formed a gens or elan^ whose members were recog- nized " by the fact that they performed sacrifices in common." A union of clans formed a brotherhood^ wor- shipping some common ancestor or hero. Of such brother- hoods were the four Ionic tribes composed ; who, claiming a common descent from Ion, the son of Apollo, and wor- shipping in common at the shrine of Athena on the Acrop- olis ^ of Athens, composed the early city of Athens ; only these tribesmen were her citizens. Even among the tribesmen a distinction had risen between the " well-born " or the Eupatrids^ as they were called, and the " Many^' the former claiming to be of purer and nobler Ionic blood than the latter.
The earliest political constitution of Athens was that of the Heroic age ; just before the time of Solon, as far as known, it appears as follows : —
^ The hill-fortress and shrine around which Athens was built.
62
STUDIES IN OENKBAIi HISTOKY.
|
Parts ofth€ State In |
War. |
Law. |
Re/lffioti. |
|
Chief-archon, |
Judges in all family |
||
|
a Eupatrid. |
and clan disputes. |
||
|
Ktng-archon, |
Judges in religious |
Offers lacrifices |
|
|
a Eupatrid. |
matters. |
and decides on religiouB matters. |
|
|
Wdr-archon, |
Commands in |
Judges between citi- |
|
|
a Eupatrid. |
war. |
zens and strangers. |
|
|
Other carchons} |
Assist the first |
Assist the first |
|
|
Eupatrids. |
three. |
three. |
|
|
Areopagus? sitting |
Decides, proclaims, |
||
|
for life, and |
and judges in re- |
||
|
composed of ex- |
gard to all the laws |
||
|
archons. |
of the state; pre- serves such rec- ords as are made of them. |
||
|
General Assembly |
Composes |
Probably meets |
Worships together |
|
of Ionic tribes- |
army and |
to hear the deci- |
at common |
|
men. |
navy. |
sions of the Areo- |
shrines of |
|
pagus and archons. |
Athena, and honors common ancestor. |
STUDY ON a.
Our own cities are made up of " wards " or districts, which may be called the units of which the city is composed ; in Athens, what units do you find? What bonds of union in each of these units? Which of these bonds was fundamental and essential? Which class of peo- ple held the ruling power ? Which had but little ? What fi-ee men in Attica had no power ? What fact determined a man's chance for power? What resemblances between the constitution of Athens and that of Homeric times ? What great changes had taken place ? What class had profited by this change ? IIow had this change probably
* All the archons were chosen annually from, and probably by, the Eupatrids.
* In full, the Senate of Areopagus or of Mars* Hill.
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 63
affected the influence of the " Many " ? If a man were rich but not a Eupatrid, what would be true of his political power ? What name will you give to this form of the Athenian government ? What view was evidently taken among the Athenians of the state of the soul after death?
b. The Legislaiion of Sohn.^ 694 B.C. (Abridged from Plu- tarch.)
Solon, being himself of noblest Eupatrid birth, was chosen archon for the purpose of composing the difficulties of the Athenian state. " A saying of his which he had let fall some time before, that * equality causes no war,' was then much repeated, and pleased both the rich and the poor." The first of his public acts was to free all lands which had been mortgaged and all citizens who had been enslaved for debt, and to enact that in future no Athenian should pledge his own person as security for his debts, nor sell the members of his own family into slavery in order to meet his dues. In confirmation of this meas- ure, the people offered the sacrifice called " Seisachtheia," or the thank-offering for freedom.
In the next place, Solon took an estimate of the estates of the citizens. Those whose yearly income was equal to about 700 bushels of barley he placed in the first class. The second consisted of those . . . whose lands produced between 420 and 700 bushels. In the third class came those who were worth from 280 to 420 bushels, and in the fourth, all those whose income fell below this : thus the Eupatrids and the " Many " often found themselves in the same class.
He next gave Athens the following political constitu- tion : —
1 This legislation affected none but the Ionian " tribesmen " of Attica.
64
STUDIES IN GBNEUAL HISTORY.
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FwUofiktBtafln |
Wwr, |
Uur. |
R9U§hm. |
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Archons: elected |
Duties and divisioiiB of |
labor as before. |
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from Solon's |
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first class. |
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Areopagus: com- |
Guards the con- |
Has a gener- |
Has a |
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posed of ex- |
stitution. |
al oTersight |
general |
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archona. |
of the state; punishes men of idle and disso- lute life. |
over- sight of relig- ion. |
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Senate: Four |
Prepares meas- |
Convokes |
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hundred loni- |
ures for public |
general as- |
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ans, elected |
assembly. |
sembly and |
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from the first |
executes its |
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three classes of |
decrees. |
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Solon. |
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General Assembly |
Decides on |
Discusses and |
Elects ar- |
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of all four |
peace and |
votes on meas- |
chons and |
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classes. £c- |
war, and |
ures proposed |
senators. |
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clesia. |
forms army |
by senate ; forms |
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and navy. |
courts of law for judgment of Athenian citi- zens; judges ar- chons and other magistrates on their leaving office. |
To this constitution Solon Added the following laws: that any one, without children, might will away his prop- erty as he pleased ; that no one should be obliged to main- tain his father, if the latter had not taught him a trade ; that trades should be honorable, and that the Areopagus should examine into each man's way of life and should punish the idle ; that the privileges of the city should be forbidden to strangers, except such as were forever exiled from their
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREftCE, OR HeLLAS. 66
own country, or those who had come to Attica with their families for the sake of exercising some trade.
He ordered also that women should travel with not more than three dresses and with a limited amount of pro- vision ; and that in the night they should go only in car- riages, with torches before them. There should be no mourners hired at funerals, nor should an ox be sacrificed on these occasions, nor more than three garments buried with the body.
Such were the laws of Solon ; and they were written and placed in the citadel where all could see them, and where they were under the care of the divinity of the city.
STUDY ON b.
What do you judge to have been those difficulties at Athens which Solon was chosen to " compose " ? Why should the rich have been pleased with his saying about equality? Why the poor? What had been one great cause of slavery? What did Solon make the basis of political power in Athens ?
How did the ease of obtaining power under his constitution com- pare with the former ease of gaining it ? What new unit appeared in the state ? What was the common bond or mark of the men in each of these units ?
Lj his constitution what people lost political power, comparatively speaking? Who gained it? What part of the state gave power? What part exercised it ? What class must be favored by those who wished to exercise power? What name will you give to this new form of government at Athens ?
What would be the effect of these laws on trade and industry ? Which laws of Solon would not be endured among us ? Why ?
What great difference do you notice between the laws of Solon and those of Lycurgus ? In spirit ? In aim ? In both cases, were their greatest changes political or social ?
c. The Tyranny of the Pisistratids, (Abridged from Plutarch
and Herodotus.)
Shortly after the new constitution of Solon was given to Athens, three contending pjirties appeared in the state ;
66
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
the party of the Shore, the party of the Plain, and the " Mountaineers," among which last was a multitude of poor laborers. The leader of the Mountaineers was Pisistratus,
I. The dweUing of the party of the Shore. II. The dwelling of the party of the Plain. III. The dwelling of the " Moun- taineers." P P P. Position of Persian fleet after message of Themlstokles at opening of the battle of Salamis. G. Position of Greek fleet at the same time. X. Throne of Xerxes.
Peirasus = the port and harbor of Athens.
of one of the oldest Eupatrid families, related to Solon, and in his manners "remarkably courteous, affable, and liberal. He had always two or three slaves near him with bags of
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 67
silver coin ; when he saw any man looking sickly, or heard that any died insolvent, he relieved the one, and buried the others at his own expense. If he perceived people melancholy, he inquired the cause, and if he found it was poverty, he furnished them with what might enable them to get bread, but not to live idly. Nay, he left even his gardens and orchards open, and the fruit free to the citi- zens." One day Pisistratus came into the market-place, having intentionally wounded himself and his mules, and told the people that he had been attacked by his enemies. " Upon this, the multitude loudly expressed their indigna- tion . . . and a General Assembly being summoned," a motion was carried that Pisistratus have a bodyguard of fifty clubmen; nor did the people "curiously inquire" into the number employed, and presently Pisistratus seized the citadel, and assumed the government of Athens. Herodotus tells us further that he neither disturbed the magistracies nor the ]aws ; but presently the parties of the Plain and of the Shore, uniting, drove him out. "But those who expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with one another," and the leader of the Plain, having made terms with Pisistratus, on condition of sharing the power, contrived with him the following plan ; They selected a woman of commanding height "and in other respects handsome. Having dressed this woman in a complete suit of armor, and placed her on a chariot, . . . they drove her to the city, having sent heralds before, who . . . proclaimed . . . * O Athenians, receive with kind wishes Pisistratus, whom Athena herself . . . now conducts back to her own citadel;* . . . and a report was presently spread among the people that Athena was bringing back Pisistratus; and the people in the city, believing this woman to be the god- dess . . . received Pisistratus." Not long after, however.
68 STUDlfiS 1^ GfiKfiRAL fllStOfelT.
the parties of the Plain and the Shore again combined against his power; and Pisistratus, hearing of it, with- drew from the country for ten years, and collecting as much money as possible, hired mercenary forces,^ with which he marched against the Athenians and oyercame them.
Thus Pisistratus, having for a third time possessed him- self of Athens, secured his power more firmly, both by the aid of mercenary forces and by revenues, drawn in part from the Athenians and in part from the silver mines on the Strymon.
His power being thus established, he introduced new festivals to the gods and improved the old; invited to Athens the greatest poets of Hellas; collected the Homeric poems; gave the public access to his library of manu- scripts ; adorned the city with new buildings ; supplied it with water ; improved the roads of Attica ; improved the culture of the olive; and preserved the forms of the Solonian constitution, he himself being always chosen the first Archon. At his death, he was succeeded by his sons, who ruled in the same way. But the murder of one of them by a conspiracy of young Athenians caused the other to govern harshly and suspiciously, and to form an alliance with Darius, the king of Persia, in order that he might have help to uphold his power in Athens.
About this time the Delphian temple was burnt, and the rich and powerful Athenian family of AlcmaBonids, that had led the party of the Plain, and had been in exile during the Pisistratid tyranny, took the contract for re- building it ; and " they constructed the temple in a more beautiful manner than the plan required, and . . . built
^ Men hired to fight for others beside their fellow-countTTineii.
STUDY OP HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS, 69
its front of Parian marble. Accordingly, these men . . . prevailed on the oracle, . . . when any Spartans came to consult at Delphi, ... to propose to them to free Athens fi'om the Tyranny. The Lacedaemonians, since the same warning was always given them, sent ... an army to expel the Pisistratids, . . . though they were united to them by ties of friendship ; for they considered their duty to the god greater than their duty to men. Thus the Athenians were delivered," and Hippias, the son of Pisis- tratus, becoming an exile, fled to the court of Darius, the king of Persia.
STUDY ON c.
What fact given on the map shows that Athens was the centre of Attica ? Name all the means which Fisistratus possessed or employed for gaining power. Which of these means had he a perfect right to employ? Which were wrong ? What right and what wrong means did he choose? How did the constitution of Solon help him? What relation between his tyranny and the spirit of that constitution ? What elements of strengtli existed in the party of the mountaineers ? Why should the mountain-men all go together, and the men of the plain do the same ? Why will a party of poor men be more ready for revolu- tion and change than one of rich men ? What faults on the part of the Athenians allowed Pisistratus (a) to establish and (6) to main- tain his tyranny? What really sustained the power of Pisistratus? What nominally, and according to the constitution, sustained it? What suspicious circumstance appears in this story concerning Del- phi ? What additional confirmation of the strength of Sparta ? AVhat resemblances between this tyranny and those before noted ? Of what use was this tyranny to Athens?
d. The Legislation of Clisthenes. About 500 b.c.
The Pisistratids having been expelled, Clisthenes, one of the AlcmsBonid famDy, became the foremost man in Athens, and proposed a new constitution, which was ac- cepted by the people, and consented to by the Delphic oracle.
70
STUDIES IN GENERAL. HISTORY.
The Athenian state had hitherto consisted simply of those who had been born into the four Ionic tribes ; now it was to consist of all the free-born native inhabitants of Attica, divided into ten new tribes according to their places of residence. Each tribe took its name from some native hero, in whose honor it built a chapel, where the new tribesmen worshipped and held their sacred feasts in com* mon. Each tribe was composed of demes, or parishes; the demes of the same tribe, however, were not all together,
though all the men of the same parish were in the same tribe. The accompanying diagram will explain: let the large square represent Attica, and the small squares the demes; demes "«," we will say, belong to the first tribe, demes " b " to the second, "c" to the third, etc. Each deme managed its own local affairs ; for those of Attica, all the demes met by tribes in Athens, where they formed the general Assembly, or Ecclesia. The following table shows the new constitution.
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Porta of Vie State in |
War, |
Lout, |
AdmMatration, |
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ArchonSf chosen hy lot |
1 As before, but subordina |
te to new |
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from three upper classes |
constitution. |
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of Solon. |
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Straiegi: ten generals, one |
Command the |
Conyoke Ec^ |
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from each new tribe, an- |
army in turn. |
clesia. |
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nually elected from three |
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upper classes of Solon. |
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Areopagus, as before. |
As before. |
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Senate of five hundred; |
Deliberates on |
ti u |
ConvokeB Ec- |
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fifty from each new |
foreign af- |
cleda. |
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tribe, annually elected. |
fairs. |
STUDY OP HISTORIC GBBECE, OB HKLLAS.
71
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PariM of th9 8tatt in |
War. |
Law, |
AdmlnlttraUon. |
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Ecdesia: all adult free- |
Composes the |
Adopts or re- |
Elects officers |
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boro inhabitants of A^ |
army and |
jects, after |
and senators, |
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tica. |
navy. |
public discus- |
adopts new |
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sion, propo- |
citizens into |
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sals of Senate |
the Attic |
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and magis- |
state. |
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trates ; judges |
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and ostra- |
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cizes.i |
^ CllBihenes introduced the '* ostracism." If any man seemed to be gaining great power among the people, the Senate announced that the Ecclesia would shortly be called to pass a vote of exile against some citizen, no name being announced. Should 6000 votes be cast against the same man, he must go into exile for ten years. A smaller number passed for nothing.
On the day when the Ecclesia met, from the early morn- ing ** the priests walked around the Pnyx [the meeting- place of the Ecclesia] immolating victims and calling down the protection pf the gods. . . . An altar stood near the speaker's stand. When all were seated, a priest pro- claimed: 'Keep silence, religious silence; pray the gods and goddesses that all may pass most prosperously in the Assembly.' Then the people . . . replied : * We invoke the gods, that they may protect the city.' "
The public income was paid over to " ten treasurers of the goddess Athena," one chosen from each tribe ; and the treasury was the inner chamber of the Parthenon, the temple on the Acropolis.
STUDY ON d.
What is the unit in the constitution of Clisthenes ? What places a man in this new unit ? What interests and duties have these new tribesmen in common? in other words, what bonds of union in this
72 STUDIES IN QENER-AjL HISTORY.
new unit? Compare the difltribution of political power under Clia- thenes and under former Athenian constitutions. Compare with the Spartan constitution in this respect. What element appears in Athe- nian warfare not seen in Spartan ? Compare the three Athenian con- stitutions in regard to equality ; justice ; democracy ; the worth of the individual man; size of state entering into each. Illustrate each answer by facts. What Athenian experience may have suggested the ostracism? The separation of the demes of the same tribe ? What name will you give to this constitution of Clisthenes?
What one thing appears as a bond of union in all the constitutions? What political term derived from deme f
a STUDY OF PEEBIAir WAE8, 49(M79 B.a
I. First Persian War : Darius against the Greeks, 490 b.c. II. Interval of Preparation, 490-480 b.c. III. Second Persian War : Xerxes against the Greeks, 480-479 B.C.
Chief contamporary authority : Herodotus. Other chief original authority : Plutarch's Lives of Themistocles and Aristides. Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius.
Note on the Map. — Each of the divisions of the Persian Empire was called a satrapy, and was ruled by a satrap who was appointed by the king and who could manage the satrapy as he pleased, if he only kept the peace and sent the king the soldiers and the tribute money due. In the time of Clisthenes, Darius was king of the Persian Empire and received from it more than 920,000,000 of tribute every year.
STUDY ON MAP AND NOTE.
Compare the Persian Empire with Greece and the Greek colonies in regard to amount and distribution of territory. What does the distribution of territory indicate in regard to the leading occupation in each case? Compare the population of the Greek and Persian territories in regard to civilization. AVhat unity did the Persian possessions lack which the Greek possessed? What unity did they possess that the Greek lacked? To whom was the Persian Empire valuable? For what? W^hat was the spQci^ value o{ PhcQiiicial
STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 73
Of Egypt? Of the Tigro-Euphrates valley? To whom were the Greek territories valuable ? In case of war, who would be most inter- ested in it on the Persian side ? On the Greek side ?
I* Account of the JFiret Persian War. (Abridged from Herodotus.)
During the reign of Darius, "some of the opulent men [aristocrats] were exiled from Naxos by the people [dem- ocrats], and . . . went to Miletus," asking aid; but the Ty. :.at of Miletus advised them to ask it of Persia. When the request came to the ears of Darius, and he heard that Naxos was " beautiful and fertile . . . and in it was much wealth and many slaves," he decided to give the exiles aid. But this expedition sent against the Naxian demo- crats was unsuccessful, and the Tyrant of Miletus, who had promised King Darius rich returns from it, feared that now he would lose his power, if not his life. So ^^ he established an equality in Miletus, in order that the Milesians might more readily join him in revolt." In other Ionian cities, also, he expelled the Tyrants, and estab- lished democracies. Sailing then for Sparta, he asked for their alliance, using words like these : " That the children of lonians should be slaves instead of free is a great disgrace and sorrow." But the Spartans turning a deaf ear, he sailed to Athens, making the same request. Now the Athenians had already declared the Persians their enemies, because the Persian ruler at Sardis had ordered them to take Hippias again as Tyrant. When the Milesian (Aristagoras), therefore, asked for help against the Per- sian, the Athenians voted, in public assembly, twenty ships for the aid of the lonians. Thus Darius became hostile to the Athenians, and, having put down the Ionian revolt, resolved to conquer them. But first he sent heralds to the various Grecian cities to demand earth and wUter as tokens of submission by land and sea : and the
74
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
|
-+ |
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n en |
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11 II 11 11 11 OJCZJ H> 01 o 5 ■« |
> •z. |
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2.2. ?! • »'* S 3 » |
i Ql |
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STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 76
islanders and many Greeks of the continent gave what was asked ; but Athens and Sparta threw the heralds, the former into a pit, the latter into a well, and told them to take their earth and water thence. So Darius sent against them an army and a navy ; and with them came Hippias, the Pisistratid. He it was who advised the Persians to land at Marathon, where the ground was good for the Persian cavalry. " The Athenians . . . also sent their forces to Marathon; and ten generals led them, of whom Miltiades was the tenth. • . . But first, while the generals were yet in the city, they despatched a herald to Sparta. . . . On coming into the presence of the magistrates, he said, * Lacedaemonians, the Athenians entreat you to assist them, and not to suffer . . . [them] to fall into bondage to barbarians.' " The Spartans, however, though willing to help Athens, " were unwilling to vicJIate their law ; for it was the ninth day of the month ; and they said they could not march out " until the full of the moon.
Meanwhile the Persians had landed, and the Athenians and their allies were arrayed against them in a place sacred to Hercules ; but the generals were divided about giving battle, half counselling surrender; but the war- archon had the casting vote ; him, therefore, Miltiades addressed: "*If the Athenians succumb to the Medes [Persians], it has been determined what they are to suffer when delivered up to Hippias ; but if the city survive, it wiU become the first of Grecian cities. . . . All these things . . . depend on you.' . . . Miltiades, by these words, gained over the war-archon, and ... it was determined to engage." On the motion of Aristides, also one of the ten stra- tegi, the other generals resigned their right of command to Miltiades alone. " The Athenians being drawn up in battle array, and the sacrifices offered being pleasing to the gods, they advanced against the barbarians in
76 STUDIES IN GENERAl. HISTORY.
double-quick time." The battle was long and hard-fought, but the Persians, although at least 100,000 strong, while the Athenians were but 10,000 men, were driven back to their ships; embarking, they wished ''to anticipate the Athenians in reaching the city. . . . But the Athenians . . . were . . • beforehand " ; so the barbarians " sailed away for Asia," and the first Persian war was ended.
STUDY ON I.
Who or what decides on what shall be done in the Persian Empire? What sort of a government will you name that of Persia? What is the aim of Persian conquest? Prove it. Who or what decides on what shall be done in the various Grecian states ? Mliat are the aims of the war on the Greek side? What is the political unit on the Greek side ; that is, how much of the Greek territory and population act together in the matters of war, of peace, of alliance? What is the unit on the Persian side? What forms of government appear in the Greek cities at this time, and by whom is each supported? Instances. Why does the Tyrant of Miletus fear he will lose his power or life? IIow will "establishing equality " help him? What city ranks first in Greece? Proof. What next? Proof. What spirit in the Athenians makes them hostile to Persia? What party in Athens will favor Persia? What city has the most sympathy with other Greek cities? Proof. What part of the new Athenian constitution do we see tested in this war? To what does it owe its success? What good characteristic does Sparta show when Athens asks her for help? What is your opinion of it in this particular case? If Persia had conquered, who would have governed Athens? WTiat advantage would Persia probably have gained in this event? AYhat qualities are displayed by the Athenians in the Battle of Mara- thon? by the Athenian generals? Comparing Athens and Persia, why should Athens beat? Write a comparison between Persia and Hellas at 490 b.c.
n. Accotmi of Interval of Preparation. (Abridged from
Herodotus.)
From the day of Marathon to the invasion of Xerxes, the two men most prominent in Attica were Aristides
STUDY ON PERSIAN WABS. 77
and Themistocles. The former represented the aristo- cratic, the latter, the democratic elements at Athens ; the rivalry of their partisans so threatened the prosperity of the city, that they appealed to the ostracism, by which Aristides was sent into exile.
It was during this time that the Athenians had a surplus in the treasury, and the Ecclesia was about to vote its equal division among all the citizens; but The- mistocles persuaded them instead to add two hundred ships to their navy, arguing that thus they might better prosecute the war then going on with ^gina, and also be better prepared for any new contest with Persia. He also indicated a better harbor for Athens, which might be well defended by the use of some of the extra funds.
Meanwhile, Darius had died; but his general, Mar- donius, was constantly urging his son and successor, Xerxes, to lead an army against Athens, and the Pisis- tratids urged him no less. So his satraps gathered troops diligently for three years ffom all parts of the Empire, and in the tenth year from Marathon, Xerxes marched towards the Hellespont with more than 1,000,000 men of Asia and Africa. ^^ On his arrival at Sardis, he . . . sent her- alds to Greece to demand earth and water . . . but he sent neither to Athens nor LacedsBmon." The Athenians at this juncture asked the advice of Delphi, and were told that they must " inspire their minds with courage to meet misfortunes." Deeply dejected, they sent once more to the oracle, and received the answer that Zeus could not be propitiated, that the Athenians must withdraw from the forces advancing against them, but that Zeus gave a "wooden wall" as an impregnable defence, and that ** divine Salamis" should cause many men to perish. Themistocles interpreted this to mean that the Athenians
78 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
should make no defence on land, but should carry their gods, their families, and their goods to Salamis, while they themselves should retreat to the " wooden walls " of their ships and meet the Persians by sea. He further said that Salamis was called ''divine" because there the Persian hosts would meet destruction. This interpretation was accepted, and it was decided to abandon Attica for the straits and the island of Salamis. (See map, p. 66.)
Themistocles also proposed, and the Ecclesia voted, to revoke all decrees of banishment or ostracism, especially that against Aristides. It was now thought best to call a general Hellenic congress, and while the king was yet at Sardis, " the Greeks who were better aflFected towards Greece met together [at the Isthmus] . . . and determined all existing enmities and quarrels with each other." Thus JEgina and Athens made peace ; but Argos, being hostile to Sparta, took no part in the council. Ambassa- dors were sent even to Sicily to ask the Sicilian Greeks to join the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians, and their allies ; but the Tyrant of Syracuse would only consent on condi- tion of having the command of the war, which neither Athens nor Sparta would allow, and so they missed the help of Sicily. The CorcyrsDans were also asked, and promised help ; and prepjvring their sixty ships, they drew near to the Peloponnesus, but there anchored and watched how events would turn, thinking, if the Persians won, they should get good terms, as not having opposed them ; while to the Greeks they excused themselves on account of contrary winds, which, they said, delayed them.
As to the leadership by sea, " from the first there had been a talk . . . that it would be proper to trust the navy to the Athenians. But as the allies opposed, the Atheni- ans gave way, deeming it of high importance that Greece should be saved."
STUDY OK PERSIAN WARS. 79
It was also decided at this congress that Greece should make her first stand against Xerxes at Thermopylae.
Meanwhile Xerxes advanced to the Hellespont, which had been bridged by the Phoenicians and Egyptians ; but a storm had broken the bridges up; whereupon Xerxes had the engineers beheaded, and the Hellespont scourged with 300 lashes, while it was thus addressed: "Thy master inflicts this punishment upon thee, because thou hast injured him . . . and King Xerxes will cross over thee whether thou wilt or not." New bridges were then built and the army crossed them " under the lash " : the passage occupied seven continuous days and nights. In Thrace, the army was numbered, and Herodotus tells us that the land forces alone amounted to more than 1,500,000 ; there were in this army Medes and Persians, armed with spears, bows, and daggers; Assyrians, with spears, daggers, and clubs knotted with iron ; Scythians, with bows, daggers, and battle-axes; Arabians and Hin- doos with bows and arrows; Ethiopians, painted for battle, half in red and half in white, who had arrowheads of stone. Herodotus names more than forty different nations or tribes in the army, and more than twelve on the 1200 ships of the fleet.
Provisions had been ordered long beforehand for this host ; heralds had been sent along the route, and every- body " made flour and meal for many months . . . fatted cattle . . . fed land and water fowl in coops and ponds " ; even then, it does not seem that the army was fed more than once a day. As Xerxes marched through Thrace and Macedonia, the tribes submitted without attempting resistance. In Macedonia he received the heralds who had been sent out to demand earth and water from the Greek cities. Many had submitted, and "against these the Greeks who had engaged in war with the barbarians
80 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOBY.
made this solemn oath : . . . * Whatever Greeks have given themselves up to the Persian witliout compulsion, shall, so soon as their aflfairs are restored to order, ... be compelled to pay a tithe to the god at Delphi.' "
STUDY ON II.
What sort of a power does Themistocles wish to make of Athens ? What geographical facts favor this policy? What provision of the Clifithenean constitution appears at work in this interval? What advantage does it give the state? What new Greek organization appears during this time, and what has produced it? In order to carry any political or military measure at Athens, what is necessary? What is necessary to accomplish it in Persia ? What characteristics shown hy the Athenians in the various incidents of the interval? What by Themistocles? What spirit is displayed by the Tyrant of Syracuse ? By the Corcyraeans ? The Argives ? What new proof liave we that Hellas is composed of independent states? What power in Greece is acknowledged to have a right to liold any individual Greek state responsible? Name two occasions in which Athens probably saves Greece during this time. How does she do it each time? How are the forces of Xerxes governed? How is his army a strong one ? How weak ? How does he conquer Thrace and Mace- donia ? What Greek city is alone able to meet the Persian fleet ?
ni. Account of Second JPersian War. (Abridged from Herodotus.)
1. According to the decision of the Hellenic congress at the Isthmus, a force of Greeks was sent to await the Persians at Thermopylae. This force consisted of 300 Spartans and about 5000 other Greeks, whom Leonidas, king of Lacedaemon, was commanding. The Spartans sent so few because a religious festival was then being held, and, moreover, it was the season of the Olympic games. Xerxes having been informed of this, asked what could be the reward for wliich they so earnestly contended in these games. On being answered, " An olive-wreath,"
STUDY OK PEltSlAN WAKS.
81
one of his nobles standing by exclaimed, "Heavens, Mardonius, against what kind of men have you brought us to fight, who contend not for wealth but for glory 1 " Arriving near Thermopylae, Xerxes "let four days pass, constantly expecting the Greeks to take to flight. But on the fifth day, . . . being enraged," he sent men against them "to take them alive"; so many of the Persians, however, fell, that the king saw that he had " many men.
P&S8 of Thermopylae
THERMOPYLAE.
but few soldiers." Thereupon he sent his choicest war- riors ; these, too, were beaten back with great loss.
While the king was in doubt what next to do, a Malian Greek informed him of a mountain path around the pass. Along this way the Persians marched all night. " Morn- ing appeared, and they were on the summit of the moun- tain. ... To those of the Greeks who were at Thermopylae, a priest, having inspected the sacrifices, first made known the death that would befall them," and shortly news cam«
82 STUDIES IN OENEKAL HISTORY.
of "the circuit the Persians were taking. . . . Upon this, the Greeks held a consultation, and . . . some departed and . . . others prepared to remain," Among the latter were Leonidas and the Spartans, who " could not honorably desert the post which they originally came to defend.'' Nor did Leonidas fear for Sparta, but thought by remain- ing to gain glory for himself and safety for her ; since the Delphic oracle had already foretold that, in this war, either Sparta or her king must perish. The Thespians also remained with the Spartans.
About noon the fight began. "Great numbers of the barbarians fell ; for the olBcers of the companies flogged their men forward with scourges, thus urging them on; from which it occurred that many fell into the sea, and many more were trampled . . . under foot." Leonidas fell, but the Greeks fought on — with swords when their javelins were broken, with hands and teeth when swords were gone — until, .it last, they were overwhelmed with barbarian missiles. " In honor of the slain . . . the follow- ing inscription was engraved over them : ' Four thousand from Peloponnesus once fought on this spot with 300 myriads' . . . and for the Spartans in particular was written : ' Stranger, go tell the Lacedaemonians that here we lie, obedient to their commands.' . . . The Delphic Aniphictyons are the persons who honored them with these inscriptions. . . . Thus the Greeks fought at Ther- mopylse."
STUDY ON I.
What sort of unity had the Persian forces? What sort did they lack ? Same of Greek forces. Which side had the best organization for war? llow was the other side compensated for this lack? What new proof have we that the object of the Persian £mpire was wealth? Wliy are men that fight for glory worse foes than those who fight for wealth ? Why was Thermopylas well chosen ? Why should Xerxes expect the Spartans to flee? Explain the phrase "many men, but
STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 83
few soldiers." What spirit did Leonidas show? the Spartans? To whom was a leader more necessary, the Persians or the Spartans? Two proofs. Name all the facts in this war that would prove the statement, '^ The Greeks honored their gods."
2. The Persians, then advancing, wasted the fields and burned the cities as they went ; and the Athenians began to send away their families to the islands; the faster, because the priestess announced that the goddess Athena had left the Acropolis.
The fleets of either side had been stationed near Ther- mopylae, but, on receiving news of the battle there fought, the Greeks sailed for Athens, putting in at Salarais, and the Persians followed. The Grecian fleet, though fur- nished by Athenians, Isthmians, and Islanders, was under the command of the Spartan Eurybiades, who, after reach- ing Salamis, quickly called a council of commanders to decide where to engage the Persians ; the council decided to retreat to the Isthmus, and there defend Peloponnesus, since Athens was now burned and Attica wasted. An Athenian, however, going to Themistocles, argued that if once the ships left Salamis, no power would keep them from dispersing. Themistocles thereupon begged Eurybi- ades to call another council, and therein advised the Greeks to remain in the Salaminian Straits rather than retire to the open waters near the Isthmus (see map, p. 66) ; he reminded them, too, of the words of the oracle concerning " divine Salamis," and finally threatened that if the allies would not remain, the Athenians would at once set sail for Italy, and there found a new Athens. Thus persuaded, the allies remained. '* Day came, and at sunrise an earthquake passed over land and sea." The Greeks invoked the aid of the gods, as the Persians " drew up near, taking their stations in silence." News came now that the Persian ' army was advancing upon the
84 STUDIES IN OENEBAL HISTOBY.
Isthmus, whereupon the Peloponnesians in the fleet once more called a council, still wishing the ships to retire from Salamis. Themistocles, no longer able to dissuade them, secretly sent word to the Persians to close both ends of the Salaminian Strait, and thus the Persians did, under cover of the night. '* While the generals were disputing, Aristides . . . crossed over from JEgina," and called Themistocles out of council, and said, " It is right that we should strive . . . which of us shall do the greatest service to our country. . . . We are on all sides surrounded by the enemy. Go in, therefore, and acquaint them with this." Themistocles replied, " You . . . have brought good news. . . • Know, then, that this . . . proceeds from me. For, since the Greeks would not willingly come to an engagement, it was necessary to force them against their will. But do you . . . announce it to them yourself ; for if I tell them, I shall appear to speak from my own invention." Aristides then entered the council, and told them that they were surrounded by the enemy, and must prepare to fight. Themistocles also spoke with rousing eloquence. The poet iEschylus thus describes the battle, which ended in the victory of the Greeks ; —
*'When now the Day, driving white steeds, filled the wide earth with glory, a shout from the Greeks rang forth, greeted Echo like a song, and Echo answered from the island-rock, inspiring. Then terror fell on the Persian ships and tents ; . . . not for flight were the Greeks chanting their solemn pseans, but for proud and daring battle. The clanging trumpet fired their line ; instant at the word they smote the roaring brine with dashing oars. . . . Then we heard the mighty shout : ' On, Sons of the Greeks, free your land, your children, and your mves ; the temples of the gods and the tombs of your fathers ' T[ is day decides for all.'
"... Then ship dashed brazen prow at ship. ... At first, indeed, the strong stream of the Persian fleet withstood the
STUDY OK PERSIAN WABS. 85
onset; but we were massed within the strait, while thej, awkwardly crowding, struck each other with their brazen beaks ; . . . but the Greeks were skilfully smiting them round about on every side. . . . The shores aud rugged rocks were lined with dead. . . • Never fell in a single day so many men."
STUDY ON 2.
Why are the Athenians in greater haste to leave Athens because the goddess has left? What reason is there to think that the Greeks will disperse if once they leave Salamis ? What geographical advan- tage in Salamis? What three different kinds of argument does Themistocles employ to keep the Greeks at Salamis? What spirit is shown by Sparta at this time? Themistocles? Aristides? How do you know which of these men has the greater character for hon- esty? Who is the real commander at Salamis? What makes him so ? What is the point of his sending word to the Persians to close the straits ? What does the event of Salamis prove in regard to the policy of Themistocles from 490 to 480?
8. After Salamis, the Greeks divide the booty, dedicating the first fruits of their victory to Delphi. Xerxes hastily returns to Persia, leaving picked forces with Mardonius, with which to " reduce Greece to slavery." After wintering in Thessaly, Mardonius marched into Greece. Before starting, he sent ambassadors to the Athenians, hoping to make them his allies, and promising them forgiveness, the restoration of their lands, and the rebuilding of their temples, if they would but be friendly to the Great King. Sparta, fearing lest Athens might yield, also sent her an embassy, promising aid in case of war. To the Persian messenger, the Athenians replied, " We will defend our- selves in such manner as we are able. But do not attempt to persuade us to come to terms with the barbarians, for we will not be persuaded. Go, then, and tell Mardonius that ... so long as the sun shall continue in the same course as now, we will never make terms with Xerxes, but
86 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
will go out to oppose him, trusting in the gods, who fight for us." To the Spartans they answered, " There is not so much gold anywhere in the world, nor a country so preeminent in beauty and fertility as to persuade us to side with Persia in enslaving Greece. For there are many and powerful considerations that forbid us to do so, even if we were inclined. First and chief, we must avenge to the uttermost the images and dwellings of the gods now burned and laid in ruins. - . . Secondly, the Grecian race being of the same blood, and of the same language* and having the temples anti sacrifices of the gods in common ... for the Athenians to betray these would not be well. Know, therefore . . . that so long as one Athenian is left alive, we will never make terms with Xerxes."
Mardonius, receiving this answer, advanced towards Athens. On reaching Thebes, the Thebans advised him not to fight the Greeks, but to " send money to the chief men in each city," and thus "split Greece into parties, and . . . subdue those not on your side." Mardonius, how- ever, did not take this advice, but marched on and met the Greeks in battle at Platsea. In this battle the Spar- tans held one wing, while the Arcadians and the Atheni- ans each claimed the honor of leading the other; the Arcadians because they had always had it, the Athenians because of their deeds, especially at Marathon. But the Athenians left it to the Lacedaemonians, saying, "*It is not becoming on such an occasion as this to contend about position. . . . Command us as ready to obey.' . . . And the wliole army of Lacedaemonians shouted out that the Athenians were more worthy to lead the wing than the Arcadians." Sacrifices having been offered by either army, the battle began. In this fight Mardonius fell, and the Greek victory was complete. A tenth of the rich spoils was given to Delphi. Thus the army of Xerxes
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 87
was finally overthrown, and on the same day his fleet was beaten by Greek ships at My c ale. These two battles effectively broke the strength of tlie Persian.
STUDY ON 3. How does Mardonius try to conquer Athens? What makes him naturally suppose this plan would succeed? What three feelings are shown by the Athenians ? What do they name as the ^nds of Hellenic union ? Who puts Greece in the greater danger, the Thebans or Mardonius? Why? What reason have the Thebans to give the advice they do? In the Battle of Plataea, what spirit is shown by the Athenians? What proofs have we that war is a religious act among the Greeks ?
In General. — In what cases in the Persian wars does the Greek action depend on single men ? How are these men able to accomplish their will? What is the use of the Battle of Thermopylae? What city of Greece deserves the lead at the close of the wars? Why? What results of Greek organization appear in tlie Persian wars? (a) at Thermopylae? (b) at Salamis?
D. STUDY OH THE ATHEHAH LEADEE8HIP (AGE OF PEEI0LE8), 479-431.
Chief contemporary sources: Herodotus, Thucydides; the plays of Euripides, Aristophanes, and the other lit- erary remains of the period; the monuments and remains of Athens, — notably the Parthenon, the temple erected on the Acropolis in honor of Athene, and the fragments of Parthenon sculpture known as the "Elgin marbles," and now in the British Museum.
Other original sources : Plutarch, Xenophon, Aristotle, Plato, and the extant writings of the philosophei*s, orators, and sophists of the generation succeeding this age.
Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius, Lloyd.
88
STUDIES IN GENERAL. HISTOBT.
■3
Z a " I
1§
g -
i1
I
a
s s.
.a
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP.
89
SunMnary of Principal Events. (QuoUtions from Thacy dides unless otherwise indicated.)
479
TO
478.
Battles of Plataea and My c ale; after Plataea, Aristides proposed a general Hellenic confed- eracy against the Persians ; to this the Greeks consented. After Mycale, the Samians, Chians, and Les- bians were admitted into this confederacy, and the allied Greeks sailed for the Hellespont ; all save the Peloponne- sians . . • who decided to sail away home. Under the lead of the Athenians, the allies recovered Lesbos. — State
SOaLPTURB FROM THB PARTHENON FRIBZB.
offices were opened to all classes of Athenian citizens. — The Athenians "set to work rebuilding the city and the walls. . . . The Lacedaemonians would rather themselves have seen neither the Athenians nor any one else protected by a wall ; and their allies dreaded not only the Athenian navy, . . . but also the spirit which had animated them in the Persian war. So the Lacedaemonians asked them not to restore their walls." But the Athenians, " men, women and children," urged on and advised by Themistocles, completed them, before the Spartans could prevent. The
DO STUDIES IN GBNEBAL HISTORY,
spoils of Mycale were devoted to adorning public gardens
and porticoes.
The Hellenic allies under the lead of the Spartan king, Pausanias, sailed for Byzantium, which they recovered from the Persians. But
477
TO
467.
Pausanias had already begun to be despotic, and "the allies were offended . . . and had recourse to . . . the Athenians, begging them to be their leaders. . . • Thus the Athenians obtained the leadership. They immediately fixed which of the cities should supply money and which . . . ships for the war against the Barbarian." Aristides, then commander of the Athenian fleet, was chosen by desire of the allies to determine the amount and manner of this tribute for each. "Then was first instituted at Athens the office of Hellenic Treasurers, who received the tribute. . . . The island of Delos [sacred to Apollo] was their treasury, and the meetings of the allies were held in the temple there. The allies were at firat inde- pendent, and deliberated in a common assembly under the leadership of Athens."
Cimon, son of Miltiades, then took command of the allied fleet, and freed the northern coast of the -ZEgsean from the Barbarian.
The treasury was transferred to Athens, and many of the allies began to pay in money instead of in men and ships.
The island of Scyros, with its fine harbor, was rid of pirates and settled by Athenians.
The Naxian allies revolted, and the Athenians "made war against them. . . . This was the first of the allied cities which was subjugated contrary
467
TO
461.
to the agreement." About the same time, the Thasian allies revolted, quarreling with Athens concerning their lights to a market and some mines near by. Athens
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 91
subduing tbem, compelled them to pull down their walls, deliver up their ships, pay tribute, surrender their claims to the mine and the market. — Pericles carried the meas- ure of the " Theoricon," by which every Athenian citizen might obtain from the public treasury, now well-filled by the allies, the money necessary to attend the theatre. The citizens now also began to receive pay for serving in the army and in the courts. — The Helots, aided by the Messenians, revolted against the Spartans.
The Spartans, hard pressed, called to their aid the Athenians, who sent them a force under Cimon ; but after its arrival, the LacedsBmonians,
461
TO
450.
"fearing the boldness and the progressive spirit of the Athenians, and moreover considering that they were of a different race from themselves, dismissed them alone of all the allies." The Athenians therefore broke their alli- ance with Sparta, and ostracizing Cimon, who had per- suaded them to send her aid, followed rather the lead of Pericles, joined themselves to the enemies of Sparta abroad, and reduced the power of the Areopagus at home.
The Phocians attacked towns in Doris and took control of the Delphic oracle ; the Spartans interfering, restored the Doric towns and Delphi
458
TO
456.
to their previous posse8soi*s, strengthened the Oligarchs of Thebes and the neighboring towns, and occupying the for- tress of Tanagra, threatened Athens. At their departure, the Athenians at once restored the democrats of the Boeotian towns to power. Soon after, the ^ginetans came to terms with the Athenians, "dismantling their walls, surrendering their ships, and agreeing to pay tribute."
The Messenians and Helots were conquered by Sparta ; the Messenians, banished from Peloponnesus, were settled by the Athenians in one of their own towns.
92 STUDIES IN GEKEBAL HISTORY.
TO 485.
Five years' truce between Athens and Sparta. — Pericles proposed a Pan-Hellenic convention "to consult about rebuilding the Grecian temples which the barbarians had burnt, and about providing those sacrifices which had been vowed, during the Persian war, for the preservation of Greece, and likewise to enter into such measures as might secure navigation and main- tain the peace. ... It took no effect, however, nor did the cities send their deputies ; the reason of which is said to be the opposition of the LacedeBmonians." — About this time new offices were established at Athens, for protecting streets and markets, preserving just standards of weight and measure, and overseeing the storing and sale of grain.
It is reported that the Persians now made peace with the Athenians, promising the independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agreeing that no Persian ship should appear in the ^gaean or the Bosphorus. — The exiled Theban Oligarchs [aristocrats] fought and defeated the Athenians at Coronea. — Thirty years' peace was agreed upon between Sparta and Athens.
Pericles thoroughly organized the citizen-jury assem- blies, and obtained that those who served upon them should be paid by the city from the treasury, now richly supplied by the confederacy.
"Now war broke out between the Samians and Mile- sians . . . ; and the Milesians being worsted . . . went to the Athenians, . . . some private individuals from Samos itself taking part with them, from a wish to effect a revolution. . . . The Athenians therefore sailed to Samos [Pericles commanding] . . . and established a democracy." The exiled Oligarchs, then hiring troops, returned and re-established their power ; but the Athenians, again investing Samos, entirely reduced it, compelling it to " dis-
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 98
mantle its wall, deliver np its ships, and pay the cost of the war."
STUDY ON I.
Why were Sestos and Byzantium important to gain? How and when had the Greeks learned this ? To which Greek state were they the most important, and why ? What was the character of Aristides among the allies ? Prove it.
Fart of this period is called that of the Athenian leadership, and part that of the Athenian empire ; when and why will you apply each term ? Why was it necessary for every member of the Confederacy of Delos to be held to that union by Athens ? What difference be- tween this and former Hellenic unions? What new bond of union in it? How did Athens obtain leadership? How empire? How did she use her imperial power? Her imperial wealth? What seems to have been the chief occupation of the Athenians? Prove it. What policy adopted by the allies weakened themselves and strengthened Athens ? Do you consider the Confederacy of Delos a failure or a success? To whom or what do you attribute this ? What party ruled in Athens? What proof of this? How could its leader carry its measures ? What measures of this period were characteristic of the ruling party? What inconsistency between the rule of Athens at home and abroad ?
What seems to have been the state of affairs everywhere within the cities at this time? What is the attitude of Athens toward these affairs? of Sparta? What is the general relation of the Greek states to each other? to Athens? "Where alone do we find a sentiment of Panhellenism? When does this appear?
2* Sumtnary of Events from 485 to 481.
The affair of Corcyra and declaration of the Pelopon- nesian war. — These things occurred as follows : In the city of Epidamnns, a colony of Corcyra, herself colonized from Corinth, the aristocrats were driven out by the democrats ; the exiles " went over to the barbarians, and, uniting with them, plundered the remaining inhabitants. . . . These, finding themselves hard-pressed, sent an embassy to
94 STUDIES IK GENERAL HIST0B7.
the mother-city, Corcyra, begging the Corcyraeans not to leave them to their fate. . . • But the Corcyreeans would not listen." The Epidamnians then asked at Delphi if they should send for aid to the Corinthians as being their first founders, and " the god answered that they should. . . . The Corinthians took up their cause, partly . . . because they hated the Corcyraeans, who were their own colony, but slighted them and often boasted that they were far superior to the Corinthians by land and sea. Irritated by these causes of offence, the Corinthians were too happy to assist the Epidamnians. . . . Great was the rage of the Corcyraeans when they found . . . that the colony had been given up to the Corinthians. They at once set sail . . . and bade the Epidamnians receive the exiled Oligarchs, who had . . . implored the Corcyraeans to restore them, appealing to the tie of kindred, and pointing to the sepul- chres of their common ancestors. . . . But the Epidamnians would not listen. . . . Whereupon the Corcyraeans attacked them." When the Corinthians heard of this, they set sail to help the Epidamnian democrats; but were badly de- feated by the Corcyraeans, who then " sailed about plun- dering the Corinthian allies." For two yeai*s the Corin- thians took the utmost pains to collect a great fleet ; ^^ and the Corcyraeans, in alarm . , . determined to go to Athens . . . and get what help they could." The Athenians, having "no mind to let Corcyra and her navy fall into the hands of the Corinthians," consented to the alliance, and Corinth was again defeated by the help of the Atheni- ans. The Corinthians, irritated by this and other events, now called for an assembly of the allies at Sparta, and war was declared by the Peloponnesians against the Athenians, unless the latter would restore independence to the allies ; on the motion of Pericles, it was answered that they would do this if the Spartans would allow their subject states
8TTTDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP.
95
the government each desired. Pericles also asked that arbitration, instead of war, should settle their difficulties. As the Lacedaemonians made no reply, both parties pre- pared for war.
At the opening of this war, the chief allies of the
IfOSAIO PATTKtn.
Prom the floor of the temple of Zens at Olympla. The onUlde border Is a variation of the " Greek Fret," and the ineide border a modification of the favorite convention- alized boney-aockle; the central design represenU a Triton blowing his " wreathed horn."
Athenians were Islanders and Greeks of the Thracian and Asiatic coasts ; with the Spartans stood most of the Pelo- ponnesians, and the states north of the Corinthian Gulf.
96
STUDIBS IK GENERAL HISTORtT.
STUDY ON 2. Why did Athens not wish Corinth to have Corcjra? What motives appeared in the conduct of each Greek state from 435 B.a onward ? What spirit? What seems to have been the general com- plaint of the Athenian leadership? of the Spartan? What state showed most civilization in the declaration of war? What general geographical difference between the Athenian and the Spartan group of states at the close of this period ? What reason can you give for this difference? What geographical advantage has each group? Name the successive steps by which the Peloponnesian War was brought on. What strikes you as its cause? If the affair of Corcyra had not occurred, would war have followed? Sustain your opiuion.
8. List of Famous Greeks living 479-838 B.C.
Those marked with a * belong to the age of Pericles, those with a f to the age of the Peloponnesian War, those with a t to that of the Persian War, and those unmarked to period 400-338.
|
Mame, |
Birth, Olreumatance, and Training. |
OauM of Fame, |
|
JEAc\iy\us*t |
Athenian |
Author of sixty or more tragedies |
|
citizen, . . . |
founded on Greek myths, except the " Persians," which tells the story of the battle of Salamis. IntroJuces dialogue and action into dramatic writing. |
|
|
JEschines, |
Athenian |
Father of extemporary oratory amongst |
|
citizen ; actor, |
the Greeks; party opponent of De- |
|
|
soldier, law- |
mosthenes before Ecclesia. |
|
|
yer's clerk. |
||
|
Anaxagoras,* |
Asia Minor; |
Mathematician and astronomer; as- |
|
citizen of |
serts mind to be the originating |
|
|
Ionian Greek |
cause of the universe ; philosopher. |
|
|
city. |
||
|
Ari8tide8*t |
Athenian citi- |
Party leader; general and naval |
|
zen of noble |
commander. (See "Summaries of |
|
|
family. |
Events.") |
STUDY ON THB ATHENIAN LKADBBSHIP.
9T
|
HtUM. |
and Training, |
CStfMO/AUM. |
|
ArutophuieSjt |
Athenian |
Author of more than forty comedies, |
|
citiien. • . • |
satirizing political and military events, the people and magistrates of Athens, Socrates and the Sophisto,i Euripides and other contemporaries. |
|
|
Aristotle, |
Citizen of Sta- |
Tutor of Alexander the Great, after- |
|
gira, a Greek |
ward public teacher at Athens; |
|
|
colony in |
writes more than four hundred works |
|
|
Macedonia; |
on politics, rhetoric, and literature. |
|
|
pupil of Plato. |
morals, natural history; philosopher. |
|
|
Demosthenes, |
Citizen of |
Speeches before Ecclesia, especially |
|
Athens ; stud- |
the ''Philippics" directed against |
|
|
led with fine |
Philip of Macedon, whose most dan- |
|
|
orators. |
gerous enemy was Demosthenes. |
|
|
Euripides* |
Athenian citi- |
Author of seyenty-flre tragedies, found- |
|
sen; finely |
ed on Greek myths and stories, but |
|
|
educated; |
often adapted to contemporary polit- |
|
|
special athle- |
ical circumstances. |
|
|
tic training. |
||
|
Thehan citizen |
Founder of Theban leadership. (See |
|
|
of fine family. |
" Summary of EvenU.") |
|
|
educated in |
||
|
military tac- |
||
|
tics, gymnas- |
||
|
tics, philoso- |
||
|
phy, litersr |
||
|
ture. |
||
|
Gorgiss^t |
Sicilian-Greek |
Sophist at Athens ; speculator in the- |
|
citizen of |
ology; philosopher; still more famous |
|
|
noble birth; |
as a rhetorician. |
|
|
trained by |
||
|
noted philos- |
||
|
ophers. |
1 This name was given at Athens to men who taught for pay ; they professed to prepare young men, as Isoc rates said, "to think, speak, and act *' so as to become influential aad typical Athenians.
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
|
Home, |
and Training, |
Cau99 of FanM, |
|
Herodotus*! |
Greek citizen of |
Historian of the conflicts of the Greeks |
|
Asia Minor; |
and Persians, embodying in his ac- |
|
|
trayelled |
count many valuable observations on |
|
|
through |
the manners, customs, institutions. |
|
|
Egypt, Ph<». |
beliefs, and ideas of the world of |
|
|
nicia, Pales- |
his own day. |
|
|
tine, Tigro- |
||
|
Euphrates |
||
|
valley(?). |
||
|
along the |
||
|
^giean and |
||
|
Black Sea |
||
|
coasts. |
||
|
Hippocrates, |
Greek citizen of |
The first to discard superstition and |
|
Cos; studied |
base medical practice on observed |
|
|
medicine and |
facts; wrote on medicine and sur |
|
|
philosophy at |
gery. |
|
|
Cos; trav- |
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elled widely; |
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physician and |
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teacher at |
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Athens. |
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I0OG rates, |
Rich Athenian |
Sophist; pupil of Gorgias; essayist |
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citizen ; |
and orator. |
|
|
trained in |
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music, gym- |
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nastics, litera- |
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ture; pupil |
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of Gorgias. |
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(See p. 07.) |
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Cimon*! |
Athenian citi- |
Party leader at Athens; naval com- |
|
zen of noble |
mander and general. (See "Sum- |
|
|
birth. |
maries of Events.*') |
|
|
Myron,*! |
Boeotian; stud- |
Bronze statues of godi and Olympian |
|
ied with an |
victors. |
|
|
Argive mas- |
||
|
ter-sculptor. |
STUDY OK THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP.
99
|
iVONM. |
Birtk, OInumttamm, and Training. |
Oaunt 0/ FanM* |
|
Pericles* |
Athenian citi- |
Party leader and orator at Athens; |
|
zen of noble |
general and admiral. (See " Summa- |
|
|
birth; trained |
ries of Evente.") |
|
|
in philosophy. |
||
|
oratory, liter- |
||
|
ature, gym- |
||
|
nastics, music. |
||
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FhidiM* |
Athenian citi- |
Designs for the Parthenon and the |
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zen; studied |
temple of Olympian Zeus at Olym- |
|
|
with artiste |
pia; statues of Athena and Zeus, |
|
|
and sculptors. |
and the "Elgin marbles." |
|
|
Pindar,»t |
Theban citizen |
Odes in praise of victors in the games ; |
|
of noble |
fragments of many other lyric poems. |
|
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family; |
Counted the foremost lyric poet of |
|
|
educated |
Greece. |
|
|
in music |
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and poetiy. |
||
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Plato,t |
Citizen of |
*' Dialogues " upon subjecto of mental. |
|
Athens; pu- |
moral, and social philosophy; phil- |
|
|
pil of Socra- |
osopher. |
|
|
tes; educated |
||
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in gymnastics. |
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poetry, music. |
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Polycletu8,t |
Citizen of Sicy- on ; pupil of Phidias. |
Statues, mostly of athletes. |
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Pol7gnotii«,t |
Thasian; of a |
Interior painted decorations of temple |
|
family of |
of Theseus at Athens, and temple at |
|
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artiste, who |
Delphi; chief artist of the famous |
|
|
instructed |
"Painted Porch*' at Athens; chose |
|
|
and trained |
his subjecte from Greek myths. |
|
|
him ; adopted |
||
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citizen of |
||
|
Athens. |
||
|
Pnudtelei, |
Athenian. . . . |
Statue of Hermes ; portrait-statues of contemporaries; his "Marble Faun" is preserved in copies. |
100
STUDIES IN OBKBBAIi HISTORY.
|
iVome. |
and Training, |
GoiiM of Fame, |
|
Simonide8*t |
Citizen of Ceos, |
Lyric poet ; famous poems on subjects |
|
of good fami- |
connected with Persian ¥rars. |
|
|
ly; trained in |
||
|
music and |
||
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poetry. |
||
|
Socrates»t |
Athenian citi- |
Dialogues with Athenian citizens upon |
|
zen; son of a |
subjecto of mental, moral, and social |
|
|
sculptor; stud- |
philosophy, touching oft€n upon the- |
|
|
ied sculpture. |
ology. |
|
|
Scopas, |
Parian; of a |
Engaged with Uiree other Attic mas- |
|
family of ar- |
ters on the Mausoleum ; I supposed |
|
|
tists ; worked |
sculptor of the famous group of |
|
|
in Athens. |
Niobc and her children. |
|
|
Sophocles,* |
Athenian citizen, |
Author of about seventy tragedies. |
|
of good fami- |
founded upon Greek myths and |
|
|
ly ; trained in |
storiesi with suspected references to |
|
|
music, gym- |
contemporary eventa. |
|
|
nastics, litera- |
||
|
ture. |
||
|
Themistodef,*! |
Athenian citizen |
Party leader and orator at Athens; |
|
of good fami- |
naval commander. (See ''Summa- |
|
|
ly ; trained in |
ries of Evente.") |
|
|
gymnastics. |
||
|
oratory, |
||
|
music, poetry. |
||
|
Thucydide8,t |
Athenian citi- zen of good family. . . . |
Historian of Peloponnesian war. |
|
Xenophon, |
Athenian citi- |
Historian and general of the "Re- |
|
zen ; pupil of |
treat of the Ten Thousand »';« his- |
|
|
Socrates; |
torian of contemporary and other |
|
|
soldier of |
Greek evento. |
|
|
fortune. |
1 The monument raised by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to her husband Mausolus. ^ The retreat of ten thousand Greeks employed by Cyrus the Younger, from near Babylon to the coasts of Asia Minor ; it was a march of nearly 1500 miles, through a hostile and unknown country (401-400).
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP.
101
STUDY ON 3 AND ON PICTURES. What seems to be the centre of Greek greatness daring this time ? What kinds of greatness centred there? What reason have we for calling Greek literature — dramatic, historical, and oratorical — origi- nal? lUnstrate from each kind. Name three things that seem good
ZBUS OF OTRIOOLE. Late Greek work; poBBibly after Phidean Zcui.
to you about the Parthenon (p. 88) ; the Parthenon frieze (p. 89) ; the Olympic Mosaic (p. 95) ; the head of Zeus (p. 101) ; the Venus of Melos (p. 103).
Why should Demosthenes be politically dangerous to Philip?
102 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
What are evident ideals of this period? What gives material and impulse to most of the great men of this time? Illustrate from sculp- ture, ai'chitecture, literature, politics. What relation do you note between training and the ** cause of fame "? To what class do these men mostly belong ? What do you know of free speech in the Athens of this period ? Looking over this list and that on p. 51, what studies do you find included under the name of philosophy?
4. Stories and Exl/rncts lUustraUve of Period.
a. Character of Pericles. (Plutarch.)
Pericles was of one of the old Eupatrid families, and trained like the ordinary free Athenian, in music, literature, oratory, and gymnastics. Anaxagoras was then in Athens, and this man was ^^ the first who clearly proved that the universe owed its formation ... to a pure . . . mind. . . . Charmed with the company of this philosopher, and instructed by him in the sublimest sciences, Pericles acquired not only an elevation of sentiment and a loftiness and purity of style, . . . but likewise a gravit}' of countenance ... a firm and even tone of voice, an easy deportment, and a decency of dress. . . . We are told, there was brought to Pericles from one of his farms a ram's head with only one horn ; and Lampo, the soothsayer, observ- ing that the horn grew strong and firm out of the middle of the forehead, declared that the two parties in the state would unite . . . and invest the power " in Pericles ; " but Anaxagoras hav- ing dissected the head,'' discovered the cause of this defect in some internal deformity.
'^ Such was the solicitude of Pericles, when he had to speak in public, that he always first addressed a prayer to the gods, ' That not a word might unawares escape him unsuitable to the occasion.' "
^^ As Cimon was his superior in point of fortune, which he employed in relieving the poor Athenians, in providing food for the needy, and clothing the aged, and, besides this, levelling liis fences with the ground, that all might be at liberty to gather his fruit, Pericles had recourse to . . . dividing the public treasure ... by supplying the people with money for theatrical
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 103
STATUS OF APHRODITB.
The so-called Venus of Melos (Kf ilu) ; made in fifth century B.C. ; attributed to
a pupil of Phidias.
104 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
diversions and for their attendance in the courts. ... As for the mechanics and meaner sort of people, they went not with- out their share of the public money, nor yet did they have it to support them in idleness. By the constructing of great edifices, they had equal pretensions to be considered out of the treasury . . . with the mariners and soldiers. For the different materials, such as stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress, furnished employment to carpenters, masons, brasiers, goldsmiths, paint- ers, turners, and other artificers ; the conveyance of them by sea employed merchants and sailors, and by land, wheelwrights, wagoners, carriers, rope-makers, leather-cutters, pavers, and iron-founders. Thus, by the exercise of these different trades, plenty was spread among persons of every rank and condition."
'^Pericles exerted all his interest to have a decree made, appointing a prize for the best performer in music, during tiie PanatTiencea ; ^ and as he was himself appointed judge and distributor of prizes, he gave the contending artists directions in what manner to proceed, whether their performance was vocal, or on the lute or lyre."
^'The orators of the opposite party raised a clamour against Pericles, asserting that he wasted the public treasure, and brought the revenue to nothing. Pericles, in his defence, asked the people in full assembly, ' Whether they thought he had spent too much?' Upon their answering in the affirmative, *' Then be it,' said he, ' charged to my account, not yours ; but let the new edifices be inscribed with my name, not that of the people of Athens.*" Whereupon *'they cried out, *That he might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasure, without sparing it in the least.'"
'^ Money could not bribe him ; he was so much above the (fesire of it, that though he added greatly to the opulence of the state, which he found not inconsiderable, and though his power exceeded that of many kings and tyrants, some of whom have bequeathed to their posterity the sovereignty they bad ^ The Athenian festlTal in honor of Athena.
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 105
obtained, jet he added not one drachma ' to his paternal estate/' His family, indeed, '^complained of a pittance daily measured out with scrupulous economy."
In the early part of the Lacedemonian War, Pericles was opposed to the people at Athens, but remained firm '^ notwith- standing the importunity of his friends and the threats and accusations of his enemies, and notwithstanding the many scoffs and songs sung to vilify his character as a general."
When about to set sail on a naval expedition, ^^ there hap« pened an eclipse of the sun. This sudden darkness was looked upon as an unfavorable omen, and threw the crews into the greatest consternation. Pericles, observing that the pilot was much astonished and perplexed, took bis cloak, and having covered his eyes with it, asked him, 'If he found anything terrible in that, or considered it as a bad presage ? ' Upon his answering in the negative, he said, 'Where is the difference then between this and the other, except that something bigger than my cloak causes the eclipse?'" YThen dying, Pericles said that the greatest and most honorable part of his character was that no Athenian, through his means, ever put on mourning.
STUDY ON a. Make a list of the qualities and characteristics of Pericles How many of these helped him attain and keep his power in Athens? How did each do this ? Which of these were virtues? How else did he gain and keep power ? Did he use any means of which you dis- approve? Why do you disapprove? What do we learn of the state of religious belief in Athens from these anecdotes ? What was the attitude of Pericles toward religion? of Anaxagoras? What do they teach us of the Athenian people? In what ways did Pericles improve the condition of the common people? Of what use was this to Athens? To the world?
6. I\rom the Funeral Speech of Pericles over the First Dead in the Peloponnesian War. (Thucj^dides, Jowett's translation.) " But while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their
private disputes, the claim of excellence is also recognized ;
1 About 18 cent«.
106 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOBY.
and when a citizen is in anywaj distingaished, he is preferred to the pabhc service, not as a matter of privilege, but as a reward of merit. . . . And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil ; we have our r^- ular games and sacrifices throughout the year; at home the style of our life is refined ; and the delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish melancholy. Because of the greatness of our city, the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon us ; so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as of our own. . • .
'' And in the matter of education, whereas our adversaries from early youth are always undei^oing laborious exercises which are to make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they face. . . .
''If then we prefer to meet danger with a light heart but without laborious training, and with a courage which is gained by habit and not enforced by law, are we not greatly the gainers ?
'' We are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth we emplo}', not for talk and ostentation, but when there is a real use for it. To avow poverty with us is no disgrace ; the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his own household ; and even those of us who are engaged in busi- ness have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs, not as a harmless but as a useless character. . . .
'' To sum up : I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, and that the individual Athenian in his own person .seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace. . . .
*' I would have you day by day fix your eyes upon the great- ness of Athens, until 3'ou become filled with the love of her ; and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory, reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who knew
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEBSHIP. 107
their daty and had the courage to do it, who in the hour of con- flict had the fear of dishonor always present to them. . . .
^^ For the whole earth is a sepulchre of famous men ; not only are they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but in foreign lands there dwells also an un- written memorial of them, graven not on stone but in the hearts of men. Make them your examples, and, esteeming conrage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not weigh too nicely the perils of war. . . ."
STUDY ON b. Describe the Athenian ideal of character as shown in the " Speech of Pericles." With whom does he contrast Athens in the matter of education ? In what particulars do you think the general American ideal of life agrees with the Athenian? Disagrees? On the whole, which ideal do you think preferable? What does Pericles mean by saying that "the whole earth is a sepulchre of famous men"? How is it illustrated by Greek history ?
c. The Defence and Death of Socrates,
Xenophon tells us that Socrates, the Athenian philosopher, was condemned to death on the following indictment : —
*' Socrates offends against the laws in not paying respect to those gods whom the city respects, and introducing other new deities ; he also offends against the laws in corrupting the youth."
When brought before his accusers he defended himself as follows (Plato, Jowett's translation) : —
" Let the event be as God wills ; in obedience to the law I make my defense. . . •
" Some one will say : And are you not ashamed, Socrates, of a course of life which is likely to bring you to an untimely end? To him I may fairly answer : There you are mistaken : a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of liying or d3'ing ; he ought only to consider whether in doing anything he is doing right or wrong, — acting tlie paiii of a good man or a bad. . . .
108 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY.
'^If you say to me, Socrates, this time we will not mind Anytus, and will let you off, but upon one condition, that you are not to enquire and speculate in this way any more, and that if 3'ou are caught doing this again you shall die, — if this were the condition on which you let me go, I should reply : Men of Athens, I honor and love you ; but I shall ol^ey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease from the practise and teaching of philosophy, exhorting any one whom I meet after my manner, and convincing him, saying : O my friend, why do you who are a citizen of the great and mighty and wise city of Athens, care so much about laj ing up the greatest amount of money and honor and reputation, and so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improvement of the soul, which you never regard or heed at all ? . . .
*' I tell you that virtue is not given by money, but that from virtue come money and every good of man, public as well as private. This is my teaching ; and if this is the doctrine which corrupts the youth, my influence is ruinous indeed. . . .
^^ I do believe that there are gods, and in a far higher sense than that in which any of my accusers believe in them. And to you and to God I commit my cause, to be determined by you as is best for you and me. . . , "
Then followed the voting for and against the condemnation of Socrates, and by a very small majority he was condemned to death. After this Socrates still continued; "... Now I depart hence, condemned by you to suffer the penalt}' of death, and my accusers, too, go their ways condemned b}- truth to suffer the penalty of villainy and wrong : and I must abide by my reward — let them abide by theirs. . . .